Punishment


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1 The general theory of punishment.
2 The nature of punishment, the pain of sense and the pain of loss, the effects of incarceration.
3 The retributive purpose of punishment, the lex talionis, retaliation and revenge, the righting of a wrong.
4 Punishment for the sake of reforming the wrongdoer.
5 The preventive use of punishment, the deterrence of wrongdoing.
6 Personal responsibility as a condition of just punishment, the problem of collective responsibility.
7 Free will in relation to responsibility and punishment, voluntariness in relation to guilt or fault, the accidental, the negligent, and the intentional.
8 Sanity, maturity, and moral competence in relation to responsibility.
9 Punishment in relation to virtue and vice.
10 Rewards and punishments as factors in the formation of moral character.
11 Vice its own punishment.
12 Guilt, repentance, and the moral need for punishment.
13 Crime and punishment, punishment as a political instrument.
14 Punishment for lawbreaking as a necessary sanction of law.
15 The forms of punishment available to the state.
16 The death penalty.
17 Exile or ostracism, imprisonment or incarceration.
18 Enforced labor or enslavement.
19 Cruel and unusual punishments, torture and oppression.
20 The justice of legal punishment, the conventionality of the punishments determined by positive law.
21 Grades of severity in punishment, making the punishment fit the crime.
22 The punishment for sin.
23 The origin and fulfillment of curses.
24 The wages of sin, the punishment of original sin.
25 The pain of remorse and the torment of conscience, the atonement for sin.
26 The modes of divine punishment, here and hereafter, temporal and eternal.
27 The justice of divine punishment.
28 The justification of eternal suffering in hell or hades.
29 The necessity of expiation in purgatory.
30 Pathological motivations with respect to punishment, abnormal sense of sin or guilt, perverse desires to inflict or suffer punishment.


All text from the Outlines is Copyright ©1990 Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.; this electronic edition is Copyright© 2005 by Michael R. Lissack and reproduced by permission.