A Research Guide

Introduction to Psychology

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1 Introduction.
2 1. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
3 2. Psyche is the soul, spirit, or mind as distinguished from the body.
4 In psychoanalytic theory, it is the totality of the id, ego, and superego, including both conscious and unconscious components.
5 3. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
6 4. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 5. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
7 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
8 6. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
9 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
10 7. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
11 8. The orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called maturation.
12 9. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
13 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
14 10. Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
15 Scientific method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate information.
16 It includes these steps:
17 understand the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research conclusions.
18 11. The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure is called validity.
19 12. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
20 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
21 13. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
22 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
23 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
24 14. Allport was a trait theorist.
25 Those traits he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central traits.
26 Traits such that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal traits.
27 Central traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors.
28 15. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
29 16. Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.
30 17. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
31 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
32 18. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
33 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
34 19. Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading "bumps").
35 Developed by Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now discredited as a pseudoscience.
36 20. A conditioned response is the response to a stimulus that occurs when an animal has learned to associate the stimulus with a certain positive or negative effect.
37 21. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
38 22. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
39 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
40 23. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
41 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
42 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
43 glia and neurons.
44 24. Either of the two halves that make up the cerebrum is referred to as a cerebral hemisphere.
45 The hemispheres operate together, linked by the corpus callosum, a very large bundle of nerve fibers, and also by other smaller commissures.
46 25. Subjective experience refers to reality as it is perceived and interpreted, not as it exists objectively.
47 26. Direct observation refers to assessing behavior through direct surveillance.
48 27. Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment.
49 28. Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
50 Rationalism has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism, in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs.
51 29. Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
52 30. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
53 31. A causal law asserts that a circumstance of such and such kind is invariably linked to a phenomenon of a special kind, no matter where or when it occurs.
54 32. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
55 33. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
56 34. Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods.
57 35. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
58 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
59 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
60 36. Normal science refers to the relatively routine work of scientists experimenting within a paradigm, slowly accumulating detail in accord with established broad theory, not actually challenging or attempting to test the underlying assumptions of that theory.
61 37. Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of behavior 38. Predisposition refers to an inclination or diathesis to respond in a certain way, either inborn or acquired.
62 In abnormal psychology, it is a factor that lowers the ability to withstand stress and inclines the individual toward pathology.
63 39. Human nature is the fundamental nature and substance of humans, as well as the range of human behavior that is believed to be invariant over long periods of time and across very different cultural contexts.
64 40. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
65 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
66 41. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
67 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
68 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
69 42. Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether they act as two separate systems.
70 43 Dualism is a set of beliefs which begins with the claim that the mental and the physical have a fundamentally different nature.
71 It is contrasted with varying kinds of monism, including materialism and phenomenalism.
72 Dualism is one answer to the mind-body problem.
73 44 Sperry separated the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres, to treat epileptics.
74 He then tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependant on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain now had independent functions.
75 45. Epiphenomenalism argues that physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no effects of any kind.
76 Perception is a passive process.
77 46. Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior.
78 47. A nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth.
79 48. A mechanist is one who believes that all phenomena relating to life are based on physical and chemical properties only.
80 49. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is called psychoanalytic theory.
81 The theory is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of development.
82 50. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
83 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
84 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
85 51. A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured.
86 Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number.
87 52. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
88 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
89 53. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
90 54. A sensory receptor is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an organism.
91 In response to stimuli the sensory receptor initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one.
92 55. Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception whereby the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
93 56. There are three basic views of the mind-body problem:
94 mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (dualism);
95 mental events are to be reduced to physical events (materialism);
96 and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (phenomenalism).
97 57. Idealism relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images.
98 It is usually juxtaposed with realism in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge.
99 58. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
100 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
101 59. An unconscious defense mechanism in which the individual directs aggressive or sexual feelings away from the primary object to someone or something safe is referred to as displacement.
102 Displacement in linguistics is simply the ability to talk about things not present.
103 Voluntarism, Structuralism, and Other Early Approaches to Psychology.
104 1. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
105 2. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
106 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
107 34. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
108 5. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
109 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
110 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
111 6. Selective attention is a type of attention which involves focusing on a specific aspect of a scene while ignoring other aspects.
112 7. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
113 8. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
114 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
115 9. Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory of psychology Voluntarism.
116 10. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
117 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
118 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
119 11. Herbart regarded psychology as concerned with elementary bits of experiences, sensations in our terminology, which combined to form ideas.
120 Ideas, he held, are the real contents of the mind.
121 To this extent he followed the British associationists.
122 12 Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory are the laws of association.
123 They are contiguity, similarity, and contrast.
124 13 Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
125 14. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 15. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
126 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
127 16. The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred to as physiology.
128 17. Constant factors in a person's psychology and physiology that consistently predicts individual differences, is that person's personal equation.
129 18. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
130 19. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
131 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
132 20 The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
133 21. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
134 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
135 22. A person who studies the relationships between physical stimuli and their perception is called a psychophysicist.
136 23. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
137 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
138 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
139 glia and neurons.
140 24. A newly experienced sensation is related to past experiences to form an understood situation.
141 For Wundt, consciousness is composed of two "stages:" There is a large capacity working memory called the Blickfeld and the narrower consciousness called Apperception, or selective attention.
142 25. Schizophrenia is characterized by persistent defects in the perception or expression of reality.
143 A person suffering from untreated schizophrenia typically demonstrates grossly disorganized thinking, and may also experience delusions or auditory hallucinations 26. Mental illness is the term formerly used to mean psychological disorder but less preferred because it implies that the causes of the disorder can be found in a medical disease process.
144 27. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
145 28. The amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as reaction time.
146 29. A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers or axons, which includes the glia that ensheath the axons in myelin.
147 Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is technically imprecise since many neurons do not form nerves.
148 30. Donders discovered that farsightedness was caused by too shallow an eyeball and that astigmatism was caused by uneven curvature of the cornea or lens.
149 31 In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
150 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
151 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
152 32. A variable refers to a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of an individual or a system.
153 33. The event that precedes another event is called the antecedent condition.
154 34. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
155 35. Naturalistic observation is a method of observation that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats.
156 Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive methods.
157 36. Cultural psychology came about in 1960s and 1970s but really became prominent in the 1990’s.
158 Contains the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, thus there are no universal laws for how the mind works and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when applied to a different culture.
159 37. The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition.
160 38. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a given individual.
161 The technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics.
162 39. Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.
163 40. Paradoxical intention refers to instructing clients to do the opposite of the desired behavior.
164 Telling an impotent man not to have sex or an insomniac not to sleep reduces anxiety to perform.
165 41. Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals in order to infer similar functionaility in humans.
166 42. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
167 43. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
168 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
169 44. The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted.
170 45. The law of contiguity states that associations are formed between experiences that occur close together in time and space.
171 As a Gestalt perceptual concept, events that are near in time or space such that things that are near are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.
172 46. Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether they act as two separate systems.
173 41. Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior.
174 42. An action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others is called abnormal behavior.
175 43. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
176 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
177 44. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
178 Natural selection requirements:
179 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
180 45. Sullivan developed the Self System, a configuration of the personality traits developed in childhood and reinforced by positive affirmation and the security operations developed in childhood to avoid anxiety and threats to self-esteem.
181 46. Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic school, based on his theory that unconscious motives control much behavior, that particular kinds of unconscious thoughts and memories are the source of neurosis, and that neurosis could be treated through bringing these unconscious thoughts and memories to consciousness in psychoanalytic treatment.
182 47. Koffka was cofounder of the Gestalt school of psychology.
183 They stressed the approach that psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as combinations of elements:
184 parts derive their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities rather than their elements.
185 48. In a double-blind experiment, neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group.
186 Only after all the data are recorded may researchers be permitted to learn which individuals are which.
187 Performing an experiment in double-blind fashion is a way to lessen the influence of prejudices and unintentional physical cues on the results.
188 49. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
189 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
190 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
191 50. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth.
192 Pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy.
193 51. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
194 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
195 52. Mediate experience refers to an experience that is provided by various measuring devices and is therefore not immediate, direct experience.
196 The Darwinian Influence.
197 1. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
198 2. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
199 3. Temperament refers to a basic, innate disposition to change behavior.
200 The activity level is an important dimension of temperament.
201 4. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
202 5. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
203 Natural selection requirements:
204 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
205 6. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
206 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
207 10. Species refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population.
208 11. Lamarck proposed a theory of evolution based on the idea that individuals adapt during their own lifetimes and transmit traits they acquire to their offspring, the "inheritance of acquired traits." In spite of its being largely discredited, Darwin and others acknowledged him as an early proponent of ideas about evolution.
209 12. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
210 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
211 13. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
212 14. Bain was the originator of the theory of psycho-physical parallelism, which is used so widely as a working basis by modern psychologists.
213 His idea of applying the natural history method of classification to psychical phenomena gave scientific character to his work, the value of which was enhanced by his methodical exposition and his command of illustration.
214 15. Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
215 16. Nativism is the view that certain skills or abilities are innate or hard wired into the brain at birth.
216 This is in contrast to the 'blank slate' or tabula rasa view which states that the brain has little innate ability and almost everything is learnt through interaction with the environment.
217 17. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
218 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
219 18. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
220 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
221 19. Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce.
222 20. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
223 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
224 21. The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin makes the argument that groups of organisms gradually evolve through the process of natural selection.
225 Characteristics that favor survival and reproduction are passed on to the next generation, those that do not, are gradually lost.
226 22. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
227 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
228 23. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
229 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
230 24. The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology.
231 25. The scientific study whose objectives are to describe, explain, predict, and control behaviors that are considered strange or unusual is referred to as abnormal psychology.
232 26. Behavioral genetics is the field of biology that studies the role of genetics in behavior.
233 27. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
234 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
235 28. Inclusive fitness is the sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.
236 29. Altruism is being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts.
237 This is distinct from merely helping others.
238 30. Evolutionary psychology proposes that cognition and behavior can be better understood in light of evolutionary history.
239 31. Galton was one of the first experimental psychologists, and the founder of the field of Differential Psychology, which concerns itself with individual differences rather than on common trends.
240 He created the statistical methods correlation and regression.
241 32. Nature-nurture is a shorthand expression for debates about the relative importance of an individual's "nature" versus personal experiences ("nurture") in determining or causing physical and behavioral traits.
242 33. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
243 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
244 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
245 34. A subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily expressions noticeable to others is called affect.
246 35. In psychoanalysis, the uncensored uttering of all thoughts that come to mind is called free association.
247 36. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
248 37. A statistical technique for determining the degree of association between two or more variables is referred to as correlation.
249 38. Return to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development is called regression.
250 39. In statistics, central tendency is an average of a set of measurements, the word average being variously construed as mean, median, or other measure of location, depending on the context.
251 Central tendency is a descriptive statistic analogous to center of mass in physical terms.
252 40. The field concerned with improving the hereditary qualities of the human race through social control of mating and reproduction is called eugenics.
253 41. Correlation coefficient refers to a number from +1.00 to -1.00 that expresses the direction and extent of the relationship between two variables.
254 The closer to 1, the stronger the relationship.
255 The sign, + or -, indicates the direction.
256 42. Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test, the Binet-Simon intelligence scale, in 1905. Binet stressed that the core of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes, such as memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgment;
257 and, that these developed over time in the individual.
258 43. Piaget argued that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children rather than quantitative.
259 There are two major aspects to his theory:
260 the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability.
261 44. Longitudinal study refers to a type of developmental study in which the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages on some set of behaviors.
262 45. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
263 46. Mental retardation refers to having significantly below-average intellectual functioning and limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning.
264 Many categorize retardation as mild, moderate, severe, or profound.
265 47. The modern field of intelligence testing began with the Binet–Simon scale of intelligence.
266 It started as a standard way for psychologists to quickly and easily compare the psychological functioning of different people.
267 48. The term normative is used to describe the effects of those structures of culture which regulate the function of social activity.
268 49. Terman revised the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916, commonly used to measure intelligence (or I.Q.) in the United States.
269 William Stern's suggestion that mental age/chronological age times 100 (to get rid of the decimal) be made the "intelligence quotient" or I.Q. This apparent mathematization of the measurement gave it an air of scientific accuracy and detachment which contributed greatly to its acceptance among educators and the broad public.
270 50. Cyril Burt was controversial for his conclusions that genetics substantially influence mental and behavioral traits.
271 51. Heritability It is that proportion of the observed variation in a particular phenotype within a particular population, that can be attributed to the contribution of genotype.
272 In other words:
273 it measures the extent to which differences between individuals in a population are due their being different genetically.
274 52. Heredity is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring through their genes.
275 53. Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading "bumps").
276 Developed by Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now discredited as a pseudoscience.
277 54. The orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called maturation.
278 55. Sears focused on the application of the social learning theory (SLT) to socialization processes, and how children internalize the values, attitudes, and behaviors predominant in their culture.
279 He articulated the place of parents in fostering internalization.
280 In addition, he was among the first social learning theorists to officially acknowledge the reciprocal interaction on an individual's behavior and their environment 56. Cronbach is most famous for the development of Cronbach's alpha, a method for determining the reliability of educational and psychological tests.
281 His work on test reliability reached an acme with the creation of generalizability theory, a statistical model for identifying and quantifying the sources of measurement error.
282 57. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a given individual.
283 The technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics.
284 58. In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test are referred to as norms.
285 59. Psychological test refers to a standardized measure of a sample of a person's behavior.
286 60. An intelligence test is a standardized means of assessing a person's current mental ability, for example, the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
287 61. Herrnstein was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and formulated the "Matching Law" in the 1960s, a breakthrough in understanding how reinforcement and behavior are linked.
288 62. An oral or written assessment for which an individual receives a score indicating how the individual reponded relative to a previously tested large sample of others is referred to as a standardized test.
289 63. An IQ test is a standardized test developed to measure a person's cognitive abilities ("intelligence") in relation to their age group.
290 64. Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of behavior 65. In statistics, regression toward the mean is a principle stating that of related measurements, the second is expected to be closer to the mean than the first.
291 Regression toward the mean is a statistical phenomenon which causes outcomes to be more likely to fall toward the center of a statistical distribution.
292 66. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
293 67. A nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth.
294 Functionalism.
295 1. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
296 2. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
297 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
298 3. Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, not unlike the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts-water into hydrogen and oxygen for example.
299 He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind.
300 This approach became known as structuralism.
301 4. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
302 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
303 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
304 5. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
305 6. In 1690, Locke wrote his Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
306 The essay arugued for empiricism, that ideas come only from experience.
307 In other words, there are no innate ideas.
308 The tabula rasa or blank slate was his metaphor.
309 7. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
310 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
311 8. Quick, impulsive thought that does not make use of formal logic or clear reasoning is referred to as intuition.
312 9. Reid was the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, and played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.
313 He advocated direct realism, or common sense realism, and argued strongly against the Theory of Ideas advocated by John Locke and René Descartes.
314 10. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
315 11. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
316 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
317 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
318 12. The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted.
319 13. Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment.
320 14. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
321 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
322 15. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
323 Natural selection requirements:
324 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
325 16. Adaptation is a lowering of sensitivity to a stimulus following prolonged exposure to that stimulus.
326 Behavioral adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat.
327 17. According to Cooper, individuality consists of two dimensions:
328 self-assertion and separateness.
329 18. Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin.
330 This school of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior.
331 It adressed how experience permits people to function better in our environment.
332 According to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can essentially be defined as complex interactions between different functional processes.
333 19. A reflex arc is the neural pathway mediating a reflex.
334 It generally does not involve the brain.
335 Instead of the brain it can include a spinal reflex integration center composed of interneurons to connect affector and effector signals.
336 20. Dewey is one of the three central figures in American pragmatism though he did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, and instead referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism".
337 He established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the United States, at the University of Chicago in 1894. 21. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
338 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
339 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
340 22. Kuhn is most famous for his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in which he presented the idea that science does not evolve gradually toward truth, but instead undergoes periodic revolutions which he calls "paradigm shifts." 23. The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
341 24. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
342 25. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
343 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
344 26. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
345 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
346 27. Hilgard made headlines as a pioneer in the scientific study of hypnosis.
347 He and his wife, Josephine, established the Laboratory of Hypnosis Research at Stanford.
348 28. Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, created the first laboratory in psychology in 1879. His methodology was based on introspection and his body of work founded the school of thought called Voluntarism.
349 29. Suicide behavior is rare in childhood but escalates in adolescence.
350 The suicide rate increases in a linear fashion from adolescence through late adulthood.
351 30. The simultaneous holding of strong positive and negative emotional attitudes toward the same situation or person is called ambivalence.
352 31. The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred to as physiology.
353 32. In everyday language depression refers to any downturn in mood, which may be relatively transitory and perhaps due to something trivial.
354 This is differentiated from Clinical depression which is marked by symptoms that last two weeks or more and are so severe that they interfere with daily living.
355 33. Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce.
356 34. An illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception.
357 35. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth.
358 Pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy.
359 36. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
360 37. Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
361 Scientific method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate information.
362 It includes these steps:
363 understand the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research conclusions.
364 38. Research that is objective, systematic, and testable is called scientific research.
365 39. Tics are a repeated, impulsive action, almost reflexive in nature, which the person feels powerless to control or avoid.
366 40. The idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions is free will.
367 41. Radical empiricism is the belief that all human knowledge is purely empirical.
368 William James was a proponent of one form of radical empiricism.
369 42. Santayana was a Spanish philosopher, essayist, poet and novelist, best known for the oft-quoted statement, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." 43. A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured.
370 Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number.
371 44. Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
372 45. Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory of psychology Voluntarism.
373 46. The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the "fight or flight response".
374 It is an automatic regulation system, that is, one that operates without the intervention of conscious thought.
375 47. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
376 48. James' concept that the mind is a continuous flow of sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings is stream of consciousness.
377 Accordingly, consiousness cannot be reduced into elements.
378 49. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
379 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
380 50. A metaphor is a rhetorical trope where a comparison is made between two seemingly unrelated subjects 51. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
381 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
382 52. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
383 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
384 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
385 glia and neurons.
386 53. Nurture refers to the environmental influences on behavior due to nutrition, culture, socioeconomic status, and learning.
387 54. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
388 55. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
389 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
390 56. A collective identity that includes interpersonal relationships plus aspects of identity derived from membership in larger, less personal groups based on race, ethnicity, and culture is called the social self.
391 57. In Freud's view the Ego serves to balance our primitive needs and our moral beliefs and taboos.
392 Relying on experience, a healthy Ego provides the ability to adapt to reality and interact with the outside world.
393 58. Self-esteem refers to a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree.
394 59. A specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research is a hypothesis.
395 60. Zeitgeist, originally a German expression, means "the spirit of the time".
396 It denotes the intellectual and cultural climate of an era.
397 61. Lange along with William James, independently developed the James-Lange theory of emotion.
398 Unlike James, Lange specifically stated that vasomotor changes are emotions.
399 Lange also noted the psychotropic effects of lithium, although his work in this area was forgotten and independently rediscovered much later.
400 62. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
401 63. Ideo-motor theory of behavior according to William James, suggests that ideas cause behavior and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas.
402 64. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
403 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
404 65. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
405 66. Vaihinger argued that human beings can never really know the underlying reality of the world, and that as a result we construct systems of thought and then assume that these match reality.
406 67. John Stuart Mill formulated five methods of induction -- the method of agreement, the method of difference, the joint or double method of agreement and difference, the method of residues, and that of concomitant variations.
407 The common feature of these methods, the one real method of scientific inquiry, is that of elimination 68. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
408 69. Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
409 Rationalism has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism, in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs.
410 70. Parapsychology is the study of the evidence involving phenomena where a person seems to affect or to gain information about something through a means not currently explainable within the framework of mainstream, conventional science.
411 71. The social sciences use the term society to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed (or semi-open) social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
412 72. The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition.
413 73. Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial psychology, and held controversial views on the reliability of witness testimony.
414 74. In Bandura's theory of vicarious learning, any activity by an observer that aids in the observation of relevant aspects of a model's behavior and its consequences is referred to as attentional processes.
415 75. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
416 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
417 76. The American Psychological Association is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. The mission statement is to "advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting health, education , and human welfare".
418 77. An enduring mental representation of a person, place, or thing that evokes an emotional response and related behavior is called attitude.
419 78. Clinical psychology is involved in the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of patients with mental or behavioral disorders, and conducts research in these various areas.
420 79. The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems.
421 80. An action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others is called abnormal behavior.
422 81. Psychological research and theory that deals with the effects of cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors on legal proceedings and the law is a forensic psychology.
423 82. A subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily expressions noticeable to others is called affect.
424 83. Industrial psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace.
425 Industrial psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid workers and organizations.
426 84. Population refers to all members of a well-defined group of organisms, events, or things.
427 85. Cerebral hemorrhage is a form of stroke that occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures or bleeds.
428 Hemorrhagic strokes are deadlier than their more common counterpart, ischemic strokes.
429 86. Calkins invented the concept of paired-associate technique, a method where information is learned in pairs and the recall is studied to determine how troublesome associations can be eliminated and replaced with beneficial associations.
430 87. Short-term memory is that part of memory which stores a limited amount of information for a limited amount of time (roughly 30-45 seconds).
431 The second key concept associated with a short-term memory is that it has a finite capacity.
432 88. Kohut's self-psychology is a variant of psychoanalysis, in which the focus is on the development of the person's self-worth.
433 It is a function of the acceptance and nurturance by key figures in childhood.
434 89. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
435 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
436 90. Allport was a trait theorist.
437 Those traits he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central traits.
438 Traits such that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal traits.
439 Central traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors.
440 91. His laboratory at Johns Hopkins is considered to be the first American laboratory of psychology.
441 In 1887 Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology.
442 His interests centered around child development and evolutionary theory 92. Physiological psychology refers to the study of the physiological mechanisms, in the brain and elsewhere, that mediate behavior and psychological experiences.
443 93. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
444 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
445 94. The concept of reinforcing successive, increasingly accurate approximations to a target behavior is called shaping.
446 The target behavior is broken down into a hierarchy of elemental steps, each step more sophisticated then the last.
447 By successively reinforcing each of the the elemental steps, a form of differential reinforcement, until that step is learned while extinguishing the step below, the target behavior is gradually achieved.
448 95. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
449 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
450 96. Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods.
451 97. The period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities is adolescence.
452 98. The essentials of friendship are reciprocity and commitment between individuals who see themselves more or less as equals.
453 Interaction between friends rests on a more equal power base than the interaction between children and adults.
454 99. In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test are referred to as norms.
455 100. Species refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population.
456 101. A period of time when an innate response can be elicited by a particular stimulus is referred to as the critical period.
457 102. A premise is a statement presumed true within the context of a discourse, especially of a logical argument.
458 103. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
459 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
460 104. Educational psychology is the study of how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations.
461 105. Scientific study of the processes of change from conception through adolescence is called child development.
462 106. The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology.
463 107. Anxiety is a complex combination of the feeling of fear, apprehension and worry often accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitations, chest pain and/or shortness of breath.
464 108. Kenneth Clark with his wife Mamie founded the Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem.
465 They were known for their 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race.
466 109. In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
467 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
468 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
469 110. Prejudice in general, implies coming to a judgment on the subject before learning where the preponderance of the evidence actually lies, or formation of a judgement without direct experience.
470 111. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
471 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
472 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
473 112. Hegel published the Phenomenology of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in 1807. 113. Kant held that all known objects are phenomena of consciousness and not realities of the mind.
474 But, the known object is not a mere bundle of sensations for it includes unsensational characteristics or manifestation of a priori principles.
475 He insisted that the scientist and the philosopher approached nature with certain implicit principles, and Kant saw his task to be that of finding and making explicit these principles.
476 114. Pedagogy is the art or science of teaching.
477 The word comes from the ancient Greek paidagogos, the slave who took children to and from school.
478 115. A simple, involuntary response to a stimulus is referred to as reflex.
479 Reflex actions originate at the spinal cord rather than the brain.
480 116. Carr introduced the notion of an adaptive act, "conduct that reflects mental activity." An adaptive act consists of a motive, a setting, and a response that satisfies the motive.
481 The result is learning:
482 the response is repeated the next time the need arises in that setting.
483 117. Rote learning, is a learning technique which avoids grasping the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard.
484 118. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
485 119. In the eye, the pupil is the opening in the middle of the iris.
486 It appears black because most of the light entering it is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye.
487 The size of the pupil is controlled by involuntary contraction and dilation of the iris, in order to regulate the intensity of light entering the eye.
488 This is known as the pupillary reflex.
489 120. Individualism refers to putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships.
490 121. James Rowland Angell is a functional psycholgist interested not only in the operations of mental process considered merely of and by and for itself, but also and more vigorously in mental activity as part of a larger stream of biological forces which are constantly at work.
491 122. Harvey Carr is often cited as the figure who "preserved functional psychology" during the era of behavioral research.
492 He is well known for writng Psychology:
493 A Study of Mental Activity (1925).
494 123. Acquisition is the process of adapting to the environment, learning or becoming conditioned.
495 In classical conditoning terms, it is the initial learning of the stimulus response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with a unconditioned stimulus and becoming a conditioned stimulus.
496 124. Fixation in abnormal psychology is the state where an individual becomes obsessed with an attachment to another human, animal or inanimate object.
497 Fixation in vision refers to maintaining the gaze in a constant direction.
499 125. Reasoning is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises.
500 There are two main methods to reach a conclusion,deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
501 126. Basic research has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables .
502 It is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest or hunch.
503 127. The amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as reaction time.
504 128. Psychophysics refers to the study of the mathematical relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.
505 129. Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to the theory of connectionism.
506 Among his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect.
507 130. Sherrington used reflexes in the spinal cord as a way of investigating the general properties of neurons and the nervous system.
508 These experiments led him to postulate "Sherrington's Law," which states that for every neural activation of a muscle, there is a corresponding inhibition of the opposing muscle.
509 He also introduced the concept of the synapse and the concept of the reflex arc.
510 131. Woodworth's theory of stimulus-organism-response considers that there are a number of potential responses to stimuli where the expressed response may be determined by the interaction between a personality, experience, etc.</