A Research Guide

Introduction to Psychology

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1 Introduction.
2 1. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
3 2. Psyche is the soul, spirit, or mind as distinguished from the body.
4 In psychoanalytic theory, it is the totality of the id, ego, and superego, including both conscious and unconscious components.
5 3. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
6 4. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 5. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
7 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
8 6. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
9 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
10 7. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
11 8. The orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called maturation.
12 9. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
13 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
14 10. Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
15 Scientific method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate information.
16 It includes these steps:
17 understand the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research conclusions.
18 11. The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure is called validity.
19 12. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
20 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
21 13. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
22 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
23 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
24 14. Allport was a trait theorist.
25 Those traits he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central traits.
26 Traits such that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal traits.
27 Central traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors.
28 15. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
29 16. Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.
30 17. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
31 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
32 18. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
33 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
34 19. Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading "bumps").
35 Developed by Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now discredited as a pseudoscience.
36 20. A conditioned response is the response to a stimulus that occurs when an animal has learned to associate the stimulus with a certain positive or negative effect.
37 21. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
38 22. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
39 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
40 23. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
41 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
42 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
43 glia and neurons.
44 24. Either of the two halves that make up the cerebrum is referred to as a cerebral hemisphere.
45 The hemispheres operate together, linked by the corpus callosum, a very large bundle of nerve fibers, and also by other smaller commissures.
46 25. Subjective experience refers to reality as it is perceived and interpreted, not as it exists objectively.
47 26. Direct observation refers to assessing behavior through direct surveillance.
48 27. Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment.
49 28. Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
50 Rationalism has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism, in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs.
51 29. Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
52 30. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
53 31. A causal law asserts that a circumstance of such and such kind is invariably linked to a phenomenon of a special kind, no matter where or when it occurs.
54 32. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
55 33. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
56 34. Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods.
57 35. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
58 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
59 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
60 36. Normal science refers to the relatively routine work of scientists experimenting within a paradigm, slowly accumulating detail in accord with established broad theory, not actually challenging or attempting to test the underlying assumptions of that theory.
61 37. Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of behavior 38. Predisposition refers to an inclination or diathesis to respond in a certain way, either inborn or acquired.
62 In abnormal psychology, it is a factor that lowers the ability to withstand stress and inclines the individual toward pathology.
63 39. Human nature is the fundamental nature and substance of humans, as well as the range of human behavior that is believed to be invariant over long periods of time and across very different cultural contexts.
64 40. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
65 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
66 41. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
67 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
68 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
69 42. Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether they act as two separate systems.
70 43 Dualism is a set of beliefs which begins with the claim that the mental and the physical have a fundamentally different nature.
71 It is contrasted with varying kinds of monism, including materialism and phenomenalism.
72 Dualism is one answer to the mind-body problem.
73 44 Sperry separated the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres, to treat epileptics.
74 He then tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependant on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain now had independent functions.
75 45. Epiphenomenalism argues that physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no effects of any kind.
76 Perception is a passive process.
77 46. Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior.
78 47. A nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth.
79 48. A mechanist is one who believes that all phenomena relating to life are based on physical and chemical properties only.
80 49. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is called psychoanalytic theory.
81 The theory is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of development.
82 50. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
83 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
84 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
85 51. A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured.
86 Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number.
87 52. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
88 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
89 53. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
90 54. A sensory receptor is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an organism.
91 In response to stimuli the sensory receptor initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one.
92 55. Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception whereby the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
93 56. There are three basic views of the mind-body problem:
94 mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (dualism);
95 mental events are to be reduced to physical events (materialism);
96 and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (phenomenalism).
97 57. Idealism relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images.
98 It is usually juxtaposed with realism in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge.
99 58. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
100 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
101 59. An unconscious defense mechanism in which the individual directs aggressive or sexual feelings away from the primary object to someone or something safe is referred to as displacement.
102 Displacement in linguistics is simply the ability to talk about things not present.
103 Voluntarism, Structuralism, and Other Early Approaches to Psychology.
104 1. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
105 2. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
106 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
107 34. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
108 5. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
109 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
110 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
111 6. Selective attention is a type of attention which involves focusing on a specific aspect of a scene while ignoring other aspects.
112 7. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
113 8. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
114 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
115 9. Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory of psychology Voluntarism.
116 10. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
117 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
118 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
119 11. Herbart regarded psychology as concerned with elementary bits of experiences, sensations in our terminology, which combined to form ideas.
120 Ideas, he held, are the real contents of the mind.
121 To this extent he followed the British associationists.
122 12 Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory are the laws of association.
123 They are contiguity, similarity, and contrast.
124 13 Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
125 14. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 15. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
126 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
127 16. The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred to as physiology.
128 17. Constant factors in a person's psychology and physiology that consistently predicts individual differences, is that person's personal equation.
129 18. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
130 19. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
131 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
132 20 The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
133 21. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
134 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
135 22. A person who studies the relationships between physical stimuli and their perception is called a psychophysicist.
136 23. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
137 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
138 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
139 glia and neurons.
140 24. A newly experienced sensation is related to past experiences to form an understood situation.
141 For Wundt, consciousness is composed of two "stages:" There is a large capacity working memory called the Blickfeld and the narrower consciousness called Apperception, or selective attention.
142 25. Schizophrenia is characterized by persistent defects in the perception or expression of reality.
143 A person suffering from untreated schizophrenia typically demonstrates grossly disorganized thinking, and may also experience delusions or auditory hallucinations 26. Mental illness is the term formerly used to mean psychological disorder but less preferred because it implies that the causes of the disorder can be found in a medical disease process.
144 27. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
145 28. The amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as reaction time.
146 29. A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers or axons, which includes the glia that ensheath the axons in myelin.
147 Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is technically imprecise since many neurons do not form nerves.
148 30. Donders discovered that farsightedness was caused by too shallow an eyeball and that astigmatism was caused by uneven curvature of the cornea or lens.
149 31 In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
150 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
151 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
152 32. A variable refers to a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of an individual or a system.
153 33. The event that precedes another event is called the antecedent condition.
154 34. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
155 35. Naturalistic observation is a method of observation that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats.
156 Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive methods.
157 36. Cultural psychology came about in 1960s and 1970s but really became prominent in the 1990’s.
158 Contains the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, thus there are no universal laws for how the mind works and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when applied to a different culture.
159 37. The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition.
160 38. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a given individual.
161 The technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics.
162 39. Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.
163 40. Paradoxical intention refers to instructing clients to do the opposite of the desired behavior.
164 Telling an impotent man not to have sex or an insomniac not to sleep reduces anxiety to perform.
165 41. Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals in order to infer similar functionaility in humans.
166 42. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
167 43. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
168 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
169 44. The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted.
170 45. The law of contiguity states that associations are formed between experiences that occur close together in time and space.
171 As a Gestalt perceptual concept, events that are near in time or space such that things that are near are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.
172 46. Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether they act as two separate systems.
173 41. Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior.
174 42. An action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others is called abnormal behavior.
175 43. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
176 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
177 44. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
178 Natural selection requirements:
179 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
180 45. Sullivan developed the Self System, a configuration of the personality traits developed in childhood and reinforced by positive affirmation and the security operations developed in childhood to avoid anxiety and threats to self-esteem.
181 46. Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic school, based on his theory that unconscious motives control much behavior, that particular kinds of unconscious thoughts and memories are the source of neurosis, and that neurosis could be treated through bringing these unconscious thoughts and memories to consciousness in psychoanalytic treatment.
182 47. Koffka was cofounder of the Gestalt school of psychology.
183 They stressed the approach that psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as combinations of elements:
184 parts derive their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities rather than their elements.
185 48. In a double-blind experiment, neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group.
186 Only after all the data are recorded may researchers be permitted to learn which individuals are which.
187 Performing an experiment in double-blind fashion is a way to lessen the influence of prejudices and unintentional physical cues on the results.
188 49. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
189 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
190 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
191 50. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth.
192 Pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy.
193 51. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
194 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
195 52. Mediate experience refers to an experience that is provided by various measuring devices and is therefore not immediate, direct experience.
196 The Darwinian Influence.
197 1. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
198 2. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
199 3. Temperament refers to a basic, innate disposition to change behavior.
200 The activity level is an important dimension of temperament.
201 4. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
202 5. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
203 Natural selection requirements:
204 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
205 6. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
206 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
207 10. Species refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population.
208 11. Lamarck proposed a theory of evolution based on the idea that individuals adapt during their own lifetimes and transmit traits they acquire to their offspring, the "inheritance of acquired traits." In spite of its being largely discredited, Darwin and others acknowledged him as an early proponent of ideas about evolution.
209 12. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
210 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
211 13. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
212 14. Bain was the originator of the theory of psycho-physical parallelism, which is used so widely as a working basis by modern psychologists.
213 His idea of applying the natural history method of classification to psychical phenomena gave scientific character to his work, the value of which was enhanced by his methodical exposition and his command of illustration.
214 15. Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
215 16. Nativism is the view that certain skills or abilities are innate or hard wired into the brain at birth.
216 This is in contrast to the 'blank slate' or tabula rasa view which states that the brain has little innate ability and almost everything is learnt through interaction with the environment.
217 17. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
218 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
219 18. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
220 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
221 19. Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce.
222 20. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
223 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
224 21. The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin makes the argument that groups of organisms gradually evolve through the process of natural selection.
225 Characteristics that favor survival and reproduction are passed on to the next generation, those that do not, are gradually lost.
226 22. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
227 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
228 23. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
229 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
230 24. The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology.
231 25. The scientific study whose objectives are to describe, explain, predict, and control behaviors that are considered strange or unusual is referred to as abnormal psychology.
232 26. Behavioral genetics is the field of biology that studies the role of genetics in behavior.
233 27. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
234 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
235 28. Inclusive fitness is the sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.
236 29. Altruism is being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts.
237 This is distinct from merely helping others.
238 30. Evolutionary psychology proposes that cognition and behavior can be better understood in light of evolutionary history.
239 31. Galton was one of the first experimental psychologists, and the founder of the field of Differential Psychology, which concerns itself with individual differences rather than on common trends.
240 He created the statistical methods correlation and regression.
241 32. Nature-nurture is a shorthand expression for debates about the relative importance of an individual's "nature" versus personal experiences ("nurture") in determining or causing physical and behavioral traits.
242 33. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
243 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
244 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
245 34. A subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily expressions noticeable to others is called affect.
246 35. In psychoanalysis, the uncensored uttering of all thoughts that come to mind is called free association.
247 36. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
248 37. A statistical technique for determining the degree of association between two or more variables is referred to as correlation.
249 38. Return to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development is called regression.
250 39. In statistics, central tendency is an average of a set of measurements, the word average being variously construed as mean, median, or other measure of location, depending on the context.
251 Central tendency is a descriptive statistic analogous to center of mass in physical terms.
252 40. The field concerned with improving the hereditary qualities of the human race through social control of mating and reproduction is called eugenics.
253 41. Correlation coefficient refers to a number from +1.00 to -1.00 that expresses the direction and extent of the relationship between two variables.
254 The closer to 1, the stronger the relationship.
255 The sign, + or -, indicates the direction.
256 42. Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test, the Binet-Simon intelligence scale, in 1905. Binet stressed that the core of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes, such as memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgment;
257 and, that these developed over time in the individual.
258 43. Piaget argued that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children rather than quantitative.
259 There are two major aspects to his theory:
260 the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability.
261 44. Longitudinal study refers to a type of developmental study in which the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages on some set of behaviors.
262 45. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
263 46. Mental retardation refers to having significantly below-average intellectual functioning and limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning.
264 Many categorize retardation as mild, moderate, severe, or profound.
265 47. The modern field of intelligence testing began with the Binet–Simon scale of intelligence.
266 It started as a standard way for psychologists to quickly and easily compare the psychological functioning of different people.
267 48. The term normative is used to describe the effects of those structures of culture which regulate the function of social activity.
268 49. Terman revised the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916, commonly used to measure intelligence (or I.Q.) in the United States.
269 William Stern's suggestion that mental age/chronological age times 100 (to get rid of the decimal) be made the "intelligence quotient" or I.Q. This apparent mathematization of the measurement gave it an air of scientific accuracy and detachment which contributed greatly to its acceptance among educators and the broad public.
270 50. Cyril Burt was controversial for his conclusions that genetics substantially influence mental and behavioral traits.
271 51. Heritability It is that proportion of the observed variation in a particular phenotype within a particular population, that can be attributed to the contribution of genotype.
272 In other words:
273 it measures the extent to which differences between individuals in a population are due their being different genetically.
274 52. Heredity is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring through their genes.
275 53. Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading "bumps").
276 Developed by Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now discredited as a pseudoscience.
277 54. The orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called maturation.
278 55. Sears focused on the application of the social learning theory (SLT) to socialization processes, and how children internalize the values, attitudes, and behaviors predominant in their culture.
279 He articulated the place of parents in fostering internalization.
280 In addition, he was among the first social learning theorists to officially acknowledge the reciprocal interaction on an individual's behavior and their environment 56. Cronbach is most famous for the development of Cronbach's alpha, a method for determining the reliability of educational and psychological tests.
281 His work on test reliability reached an acme with the creation of generalizability theory, a statistical model for identifying and quantifying the sources of measurement error.
282 57. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a given individual.
283 The technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics.
284 58. In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test are referred to as norms.
285 59. Psychological test refers to a standardized measure of a sample of a person's behavior.
286 60. An intelligence test is a standardized means of assessing a person's current mental ability, for example, the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
287 61. Herrnstein was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and formulated the "Matching Law" in the 1960s, a breakthrough in understanding how reinforcement and behavior are linked.
288 62. An oral or written assessment for which an individual receives a score indicating how the individual reponded relative to a previously tested large sample of others is referred to as a standardized test.
289 63. An IQ test is a standardized test developed to measure a person's cognitive abilities ("intelligence") in relation to their age group.
290 64. Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of behavior 65. In statistics, regression toward the mean is a principle stating that of related measurements, the second is expected to be closer to the mean than the first.
291 Regression toward the mean is a statistical phenomenon which causes outcomes to be more likely to fall toward the center of a statistical distribution.
292 66. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
293 67. A nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth.
294 Functionalism.
295 1. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
296 2. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
297 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
298 3. Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, not unlike the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts-water into hydrogen and oxygen for example.
299 He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind.
300 This approach became known as structuralism.
301 4. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
302 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
303 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
304 5. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
305 6. In 1690, Locke wrote his Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
306 The essay arugued for empiricism, that ideas come only from experience.
307 In other words, there are no innate ideas.
308 The tabula rasa or blank slate was his metaphor.
309 7. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
310 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
311 8. Quick, impulsive thought that does not make use of formal logic or clear reasoning is referred to as intuition.
312 9. Reid was the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, and played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.
313 He advocated direct realism, or common sense realism, and argued strongly against the Theory of Ideas advocated by John Locke and René Descartes.
314 10. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
315 11. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
316 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
317 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
318 12. The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted.
319 13. Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment.
320 14. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
321 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
322 15. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
323 Natural selection requirements:
324 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
325 16. Adaptation is a lowering of sensitivity to a stimulus following prolonged exposure to that stimulus.
326 Behavioral adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat.
327 17. According to Cooper, individuality consists of two dimensions:
328 self-assertion and separateness.
329 18. Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin.
330 This school of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior.
331 It adressed how experience permits people to function better in our environment.
332 According to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can essentially be defined as complex interactions between different functional processes.
333 19. A reflex arc is the neural pathway mediating a reflex.
334 It generally does not involve the brain.
335 Instead of the brain it can include a spinal reflex integration center composed of interneurons to connect affector and effector signals.
336 20. Dewey is one of the three central figures in American pragmatism though he did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, and instead referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism".
337 He established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the United States, at the University of Chicago in 1894. 21. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
338 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
339 Itmay also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
340 22. Kuhn is most famous for his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in which he presented the idea that science does not evolve gradually toward truth, but instead undergoes periodic revolutions which he calls "paradigm shifts." 23. The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
341 24. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
342 25. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
343 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
344 26. Darwin achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection.
345 His book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the first text on comparative psychology.
346 27. Hilgard made headlines as a pioneer in the scientific study of hypnosis.
347 He and his wife, Josephine, established the Laboratory of Hypnosis Research at Stanford.
348 28. Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, created the first laboratory in psychology in 1879. His methodology was based on introspection and his body of work founded the school of thought called Voluntarism.
349 29. Suicide behavior is rare in childhood but escalates in adolescence.
350 The suicide rate increases in a linear fashion from adolescence through late adulthood.
351 30. The simultaneous holding of strong positive and negative emotional attitudes toward the same situation or person is called ambivalence.
352 31. The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred to as physiology.
353 32. In everyday language depression refers to any downturn in mood, which may be relatively transitory and perhaps due to something trivial.
354 This is differentiated from Clinical depression which is marked by symptoms that last two weeks or more and are so severe that they interfere with daily living.
355 33. Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce.
356 34. An illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception.
357 35. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth.
358 Pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy.
359 36. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
360 37. Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
361 Scientific method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate information.
362 It includes these steps:
363 understand the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research conclusions.
364 38. Research that is objective, systematic, and testable is called scientific research.
365 39. Tics are a repeated, impulsive action, almost reflexive in nature, which the person feels powerless to control or avoid.
366 40. The idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions is free will.
367 41. Radical empiricism is the belief that all human knowledge is purely empirical.
368 William James was a proponent of one form of radical empiricism.
369 42. Santayana was a Spanish philosopher, essayist, poet and novelist, best known for the oft-quoted statement, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." 43. A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured.
370 Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number.
371 44. Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
372 45. Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory of psychology Voluntarism.
373 46. The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the "fight or flight response".
374 It is an automatic regulation system, that is, one that operates without the intervention of conscious thought.
375 47. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
376 48. James' concept that the mind is a continuous flow of sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings is stream of consciousness.
377 Accordingly, consiousness cannot be reduced into elements.
378 49. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
379 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
380 50. A metaphor is a rhetorical trope where a comparison is made between two seemingly unrelated subjects 51. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
381 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
382 52. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
383 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
384 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
385 glia and neurons.
386 53. Nurture refers to the environmental influences on behavior due to nutrition, culture, socioeconomic status, and learning.
387 54. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
388 55. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
389 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
390 56. A collective identity that includes interpersonal relationships plus aspects of identity derived from membership in larger, less personal groups based on race, ethnicity, and culture is called the social self.
391 57. In Freud's view the Ego serves to balance our primitive needs and our moral beliefs and taboos.
392 Relying on experience, a healthy Ego provides the ability to adapt to reality and interact with the outside world.
393 58. Self-esteem refers to a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree.
394 59. A specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research is a hypothesis.
395 60. Zeitgeist, originally a German expression, means "the spirit of the time".
396 It denotes the intellectual and cultural climate of an era.
397 61. Lange along with William James, independently developed the James-Lange theory of emotion.
398 Unlike James, Lange specifically stated that vasomotor changes are emotions.
399 Lange also noted the psychotropic effects of lithium, although his work in this area was forgotten and independently rediscovered much later.
400 62. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
401 63. Ideo-motor theory of behavior according to William James, suggests that ideas cause behavior and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas.
402 64. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
403 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
404 65. The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
405 66. Vaihinger argued that human beings can never really know the underlying reality of the world, and that as a result we construct systems of thought and then assume that these match reality.
406 67. John Stuart Mill formulated five methods of induction -- the method of agreement, the method of difference, the joint or double method of agreement and difference, the method of residues, and that of concomitant variations.
407 The common feature of these methods, the one real method of scientific inquiry, is that of elimination 68. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
408 69. Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.
409 Rationalism has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism, in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs.
410 70. Parapsychology is the study of the evidence involving phenomena where a person seems to affect or to gain information about something through a means not currently explainable within the framework of mainstream, conventional science.
411 71. The social sciences use the term society to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed (or semi-open) social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
412 72. The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition.
413 73. Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial psychology, and held controversial views on the reliability of witness testimony.
414 74. In Bandura's theory of vicarious learning, any activity by an observer that aids in the observation of relevant aspects of a model's behavior and its consequences is referred to as attentional processes.
415 75. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
416 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
417 76. The American Psychological Association is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. The mission statement is to "advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting health, education , and human welfare".
418 77. An enduring mental representation of a person, place, or thing that evokes an emotional response and related behavior is called attitude.
419 78. Clinical psychology is involved in the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of patients with mental or behavioral disorders, and conducts research in these various areas.
420 79. The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems.
421 80. An action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others is called abnormal behavior.
422 81. Psychological research and theory that deals with the effects of cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors on legal proceedings and the law is a forensic psychology.
423 82. A subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily expressions noticeable to others is called affect.
424 83. Industrial psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace.
425 Industrial psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid workers and organizations.
426 84. Population refers to all members of a well-defined group of organisms, events, or things.
427 85. Cerebral hemorrhage is a form of stroke that occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures or bleeds.
428 Hemorrhagic strokes are deadlier than their more common counterpart, ischemic strokes.
429 86. Calkins invented the concept of paired-associate technique, a method where information is learned in pairs and the recall is studied to determine how troublesome associations can be eliminated and replaced with beneficial associations.
430 87. Short-term memory is that part of memory which stores a limited amount of information for a limited amount of time (roughly 30-45 seconds).
431 The second key concept associated with a short-term memory is that it has a finite capacity.
432 88. Kohut's self-psychology is a variant of psychoanalysis, in which the focus is on the development of the person's self-worth.
433 It is a function of the acceptance and nurturance by key figures in childhood.
434 89. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
435 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
436 90. Allport was a trait theorist.
437 Those traits he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central traits.
438 Traits such that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal traits.
439 Central traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors.
440 91. His laboratory at Johns Hopkins is considered to be the first American laboratory of psychology.
441 In 1887 Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology.
442 His interests centered around child development and evolutionary theory 92. Physiological psychology refers to the study of the physiological mechanisms, in the brain and elsewhere, that mediate behavior and psychological experiences.
443 93. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
444 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
445 94. The concept of reinforcing successive, increasingly accurate approximations to a target behavior is called shaping.
446 The target behavior is broken down into a hierarchy of elemental steps, each step more sophisticated then the last.
447 By successively reinforcing each of the the elemental steps, a form of differential reinforcement, until that step is learned while extinguishing the step below, the target behavior is gradually achieved.
448 95. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
449 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
450 96. Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods.
451 97. The period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities is adolescence.
452 98. The essentials of friendship are reciprocity and commitment between individuals who see themselves more or less as equals.
453 Interaction between friends rests on a more equal power base than the interaction between children and adults.
454 99. In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test are referred to as norms.
455 100. Species refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population.
456 101. A period of time when an innate response can be elicited by a particular stimulus is referred to as the critical period.
457 102. A premise is a statement presumed true within the context of a discourse, especially of a logical argument.
458 103. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
459 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
460 104. Educational psychology is the study of how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations.
461 105. Scientific study of the processes of change from conception through adolescence is called child development.
462 106. The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology.
463 107. Anxiety is a complex combination of the feeling of fear, apprehension and worry often accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitations, chest pain and/or shortness of breath.
464 108. Kenneth Clark with his wife Mamie founded the Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem.
465 They were known for their 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race.
466 109. In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
467 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
468 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
469 110. Prejudice in general, implies coming to a judgment on the subject before learning where the preponderance of the evidence actually lies, or formation of a judgement without direct experience.
470 111. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
471 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
472 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
473 112. Hegel published the Phenomenology of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in 1807. 113. Kant held that all known objects are phenomena of consciousness and not realities of the mind.
474 But, the known object is not a mere bundle of sensations for it includes unsensational characteristics or manifestation of a priori principles.
475 He insisted that the scientist and the philosopher approached nature with certain implicit principles, and Kant saw his task to be that of finding and making explicit these principles.
476 114. Pedagogy is the art or science of teaching.
477 The word comes from the ancient Greek paidagogos, the slave who took children to and from school.
478 115. A simple, involuntary response to a stimulus is referred to as reflex.
479 Reflex actions originate at the spinal cord rather than the brain.
480 116. Carr introduced the notion of an adaptive act, "conduct that reflects mental activity." An adaptive act consists of a motive, a setting, and a response that satisfies the motive.
481 The result is learning:
482 the response is repeated the next time the need arises in that setting.
483 117. Rote learning, is a learning technique which avoids grasping the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard.
484 118. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
485 119. In the eye, the pupil is the opening in the middle of the iris.
486 It appears black because most of the light entering it is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye.
487 The size of the pupil is controlled by involuntary contraction and dilation of the iris, in order to regulate the intensity of light entering the eye.
488 This is known as the pupillary reflex.
489 120. Individualism refers to putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships.
490 121. James Rowland Angell is a functional psycholgist interested not only in the operations of mental process considered merely of and by and for itself, but also and more vigorously in mental activity as part of a larger stream of biological forces which are constantly at work.
491 122. Harvey Carr is often cited as the figure who "preserved functional psychology" during the era of behavioral research.
492 He is well known for writng Psychology:
493 A Study of Mental Activity (1925).
494 123. Acquisition is the process of adapting to the environment, learning or becoming conditioned.
495 In classical conditoning terms, it is the initial learning of the stimulus response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with a unconditioned stimulus and becoming a conditioned stimulus.
496 124. Fixation in abnormal psychology is the state where an individual becomes obsessed with an attachment to another human, animal or inanimate object.
497 Fixation in vision refers to maintaining the gaze in a constant direction.
499 125. Reasoning is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises.
500 There are two main methods to reach a conclusion,deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
501 126. Basic research has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables .
502 It is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest or hunch.
503 127. The amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as reaction time.
504 128. Psychophysics refers to the study of the mathematical relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.
505 129. Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to the theory of connectionism.
506 Among his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect.
507 130. Sherrington used reflexes in the spinal cord as a way of investigating the general properties of neurons and the nervous system.
508 These experiments led him to postulate "Sherrington's Law," which states that for every neural activation of a muscle, there is a corresponding inhibition of the opposing muscle.
509 He also introduced the concept of the synapse and the concept of the reflex arc.
510 131. Woodworth's theory of stimulus-organism-response considers that there are a number of potential responses to stimuli where the expressed response may be determined by the interaction between a personality, experience, etc.
511 132. The process that connects two stimuli, a stimulus and a response, or a response and a reinforcer is an associative process.
512 133. Galton was one of the first experimental psychologists, and the founder of the field of Differential Psychology, which concerns itself with individual differences rather than on common trends.
513 He created the statistical methods correlation and regression.
514 134. Conformity is the degree to which members of a group will change their behavior, views and attitudes to fit the views of the group.
515 The group can influence members via unconscious processes or via overt social pressure on individuals.
516 135. Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals in order to infer similar functionaility in humans.
517 136. A 19th century naturalist, Romanes coined the term, and laid the foundation of comparative psychology.
518 He postulated similar cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and animals.
519 137. Conwy Lloyd Morgan is best remembered for coining the proposition now known as "Morgan's Canon" or "Lloyd Morgan's canon." As well as his scientific work, he was active in academic administration.
520 He became Principal of the University College in 1891 and consequently played a central role in the campaign to secure it full university status.
521 138. Anecdotal evidence is unreliable evidence based on personal experience that has not been empirically tested, and which is often used in an argument as if it had been scientifically or statistically proven.
522 The person using anecdotal evidence may or may not be aware of the fact that, by doing so, they are generalizing.
523 139. Learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a number of unsuccessful responses is referred to as trial-and-error learning.
524 140. According to Gestalt psychology, people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns.
525 The tendency is to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns.
526 141. Margaret Floy Washburn was best known for her experimental work in animal behavior and motor theory development.
527 She used her experimental studies in animal behavior and cognition to present her idea that mental (not just behavioral) events are legitimate and important psychological areas for study in her book, The Animal Mind (1908).
528 142. Naturalistic observation is a method of observation that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats.
529 Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive methods.
530 143. A variable refers to a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of an individual or a system.
531 144. The puzzle box experiments were motivated in part by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary factulties such as insight in their problem solving.
532 He reasoned that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop;
533 while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves.
534 His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.
535 He asserted that the connection between the box and the motions the cat used to escape was strengthened by each escape.
536 145. Through experience a neural bond or connection is formed between perceived stimuli and emitted responses;
537 therefore, intellect facilitated the formation of the neural bonds.
538 146. The idea that the formation of complex ideas is accomplished through the association of simpler ideas is referred to as associationism.
539 Aristotle was among the first to recognize how the mind associates ideas with one another.
540 He believed that associations are formed based on four things:
541 similarities, differences, contiguities in time, and contiguities in space.
542 147. The motivation of humans and other animals to seek pleasure and avoid pain is referred to as hedonism.
543 148. In Thorndike's theory of learning, the law of exercise states connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.
544 149. The law of disuse states that an increase in the strength of the connection between the stimuli and response depends on the amount of times the connection has been made.
545 Therfore the strength of the connection will decrease if a connection between the simuli and the respose is not made over a length of time.
546 150. Disuse refers to theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved.
547 151. The law of effect is a principle of psychology described by Edward Thorndike in 1898. It holds that responses to stimuli that produce a satisfying or pleasant effect in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in the situation.
548 Conversely, responses that produce a discomforting or unpleasant effect are less likely to occur again in the situation 152. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
549 153. Punishment is the addtion of a stimulus that reduces the frequency of a response, or the removal of a stimulus that results in a reduction of the response.
550 154. A relationship between two variables in which both vary in the same direction is called a positive correlation.
551 155. Thorndike's theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations;
552 i.e., transfer is always specific, never general.
553 In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was introduced;
554 connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together.
555 156. Psychometric study is concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.
556 The field is primarily concerned with the study of differences between individuals 157. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
557 158. An action or response that is directly observable and measurable is an overt behavior.
558 159. Selective attention is a type of attention which involves focusing on a specific aspect of a scene while ignoring other aspects.
559 160. Psychoanalysis refers to the school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior.
560 It was Freud's method of exploring human personality.
561 161. Modern Connectionism theory postulates that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory.
562 Thorndike's original Connectionism Theory represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:
563 Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
564 162. The concept of transfer of training states that knowledge or abilities acquired in one area aids the acquisition of knowledge or abilities in other areas.
565 When prior learning is helpful, it is called positive transfer.
566 When prior learning inhibits new learning, it is called negative transfer.
567 163. Elementism is study of complex phenomena in terms of their basic parts or elements and the laws that describe them.
568 164. Reflection is the process of rephrasing or repeating thoughts and feelings expressed, making the person more aware of what they are saying or thinking.
569 165. A comparative psychologist is primarily interested in studying and comparing the behavior of different species.
570 166. The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure is called validity.
571 Behaviorism.
572 1. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
573 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
574 2. The behavioristic position is that a person comes under the control of a stimulating environment, responds to subtle properties of that environment, and responds to it in many complex ways because of the consequences contingent upon earlier responses.
575 3. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
576 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
577 4. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
578 5. An analogy is a comparison between two different things, in order to highlight some form of similarity.
579 Analogy is the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject to another particular subject.
580 6. Zeitgeist, originally a German expression, means "the spirit of the time".
581 It denotes the intellectual and cultural climate of an era.
582 7. Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to the theory of connectionism.
583 Among his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect.
584 8. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
585 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
586 9. The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred to as physiology.
587 10. Sechenov was the founder of Russian objective psychology.
588 His most important contribution was the concept of inhibition introduced in his work The Reflexes of the Brain.
589 11. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
590 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
591 12. The idea that the formation of complex ideas is accomplished through the association of simpler ideas is referred to as associationism.
592 Aristotle was among the first to recognize how the mind associates ideas with one another.
593 He believed that associations are formed based on four things:
594 similarities, differences, contiguities in time, and contiguities in space.
595 13. Positivism is an approach to understanding the world based on science.
596 It can be traced back to Auguste Comte in the 19th century.
597 Positivists believe that there is little if any methodological difference between social sciences and natural sciences;
598 societies, like nature, operate according to laws.
599 14. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
600 15. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
601 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
602 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
603 glia and neurons.
604 16. The vagus nerve is tenth of twelve paired cranial nerves and is the only nerve that starts in the brainstem (somewhere in the medulla oblongata) and extends all the way down past the head, right down to the abdomen.
605 The vagus nerve is arguably the single most important nerve in the body.
606 17. Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
607 18. A simple, involuntary response to a stimulus is referred to as reflex.
608 Reflex actions originate at the spinal cord rather than the brain.
609 19. Reliability means the extent to which a test produces a consistent , reproducible score .
610 20. A specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research is a hypothesis.
611 21. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
612 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
613 22. In conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned is a generalization.
614 The greater the similarity among the stimuli, the greater the probability of generalization.
615 23. Pavlov first described the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning in experiments with dogs.
616 24. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
617 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
618 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
619 25. Hartley, like Locke, asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank.
620 By a growth from simple sensations, those states of consciousness which appear most remote from sensation come into being.
621 His main theory was the doctrine of associations.
622 26. Bain was the originator of the theory of psycho-physical parallelism, which is used so widely as a working basis by modern psychologists.
623 His idea of applying the natural history method of classification to psychical phenomena gave scientific character to his work, the value of which was enhanced by his methodical exposition and his command of illustration.
624 27. The conditioned reflex was Pavlov's term for the conditioned response which is a an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus 28. The social sciences use the term society to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed (or semi-open) social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
625 29. Conditioning describes the process by which behaviors can be learned or modified through interaction with the environment.
626 30. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus elicits a response from an organism prior to conditioning.
627 It is a naturally occurring stimulus and a naturally occurring response..
628 31. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
629 32. An Unconditioned Response is the response elicited to an unconditioned stimulus.
630 It is a natural, automatic response.
631 33. A conditioned response is the response to a stimulus that occurs when an animal has learned to associate the stimulus with a certain positive or negative effect.
632 34. A previously neutral stimulus that elicits the conditioned response because of being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally elicited that response, is called a conditioned stimulus.
633 35. A stimulus prior to conditioning that does not naturally result in the response of interest is called a neutral stimulus.
634 36. The vertebrate central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
635 37. Pavlov believed that some stimuli elicit excitation in the brain, and others inhibition.
636 The patterns of the point of excitation and inhibition on the cerebral cortex at any given moment was called the cortical mosaic - and this mosaic determined the organism's behavior.
637 38. The recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time is referred to as spontaneous recovery.
638 39. A temporary increase in the strength of an extinguished response caused by an unrelated stimulus event is referred to as disinhibition.
639 40. In operant extinction, if no reinforcement is delivered after the response, gradually the behavior will no longer occur in the presence of the stimulus.
640 The process is more rapid following continuous reinforcement rather than after partial reinforcement.
641 In Classical Conditioning, repeated presentations of the CS without being followed by the US results in the extinction of the CS. 41. Any bizarre or neurotic-like behavior induced through an experimental procedure such as discrimination training is called experimental neurosis.
642 42. An action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others is called abnormal behavior.
643 43. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
644 44. Phylogenetic history refers to the evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms.
645 45. Species refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population.
646 46. Pavlov defined the first-signal system as the stimulis or sensations arising from the outside world.
647 47. An enduring mental representation of a person, place, or thing that evokes an emotional response and related behavior is called attitude.
648 48. Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method.
649 49. An approach to understanding human behavior, developed by physiologists in the nineteenth century, that was based on the premise that all behavior occurs through reflexes, is reflexology.
650 50. A statistical technique for determining the degree of association between two or more variables is referred to as correlation.
651 51. An action or response that is directly observable and measurable is an overt behavior.
652 52. Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, created the first laboratory in psychology in 1879. His methodology was based on introspection and his body of work founded the school of thought called Voluntarism.
653 53. Whereas Galileo and Descartes emphasized the role of deductive reason in the acquisition and defense of knowledge, the British Empiricists emphasized the experimental and observational methodology of induction for the acquisition and defense of knowledge.
654 54. Hume was the ultimate skeptic, reducing matter, mind, religion, and science to a matter of sense impressions and memories.
655 He was a strong empiricist.
656 55. Dewey is one of the three central figures in American pragmatism though he did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, and instead referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism".
657 He established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the United States, at the University of Chicago in 1894. 56. A physician who studies the nervous system, especially its structure, functions, and abnormalities is referred to as neurologist.
658 57. Nervous breakdown is often used by laymen to describe a sudden and acute attack of mental illness—for instance, clinical depression or anxiety disorder—in a previously outwardly healthy person.
659 Breakdowns are the result of chronic and unrelenting nervous strain, and not a sign of weakness.
660 58. Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals in order to infer similar functionaility in humans.
661 59. Yerkes worked in the field of comparative psychology.
662 He is best known for studying the intelligence and social behavior of gorillas and chimpanzees.
663 Joining with John D. Dodson, he developed the Yerkes-Dodson law relating arousal to performance.
664 60. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
665 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
666 61. The essentials of friendship are reciprocity and commitment between individuals who see themselves more or less as equals.
667 Interaction between friends rests on a more equal power base than the interaction between children and adults.
668 62. Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, not unlike the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts-water into hydrogen and oxygen for example.
669 He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind.
670 This approach became known as structuralism.
671 63. Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods.
672 64. The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted.
673 65. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 66. The sense providing information about relative position and movement of body parts is the kinesthetic sense.
674 67. Lashley failed to find a single biological locus of memory suggesting to him that memories were not localized to one part of the brain, but were widely distributed throughout the cortex.
675 68. Distributed practice is a technique whereby the student distributes their study efforts in a given course over many study sessions that are relatively short in duration.
676 69. Massed practice refers to learning in one long practice session as opposed to spacing the learning in shorter practice sessions over an extended period.
677 70. According to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information is called a scheme.
678 71. The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the "fight or flight response".
679 It is an automatic regulation system, that is, one that operates without the intervention of conscious thought.
680 72. Suicide behavior is rare in childhood but escalates in adolescence.
681 The suicide rate increases in a linear fashion from adolescence through late adulthood.
682 73. Stimulus-response psychology regards all behavior as a series of responses to different stimuli.
683 In theory, any stimulus connected with any response can eventually be identified.
684 It regards behavior as predictable and potentially controllable.
685 74. Tolman characterized Watson’s brand of behaviorism as a muscle twitchism directed at the ’molecular’ behavior of muscle contractions and glandular secretions.
686 He argued that even molecular behaviorism must rely on ’molar’ descriptions of what animals do as whole organisms interacting with their environments.
687 75. Verbal Behavior is a book written by B.F. Skinner in which the author presents his ideas on language.
688 For Skinner, speech, along with other forms of communication, was simply a behavior.
689 Skinner argued that each act of speech is an inevitable consequence of the speaker's current environment and his behavioral and sensory history.
690 76. The larynx, or voicebox, is an organ in the neck of mammals involved in protection of the trachea and sound production.
691 The larynx houses the vocal cords, and is situated at the point where the upper tract splits into the trachea and the esophagus.
692 77. For Watson thought was nothing more than implicit speech movements or subvocal speech which is tiny movements of the larnyx that take place during problem-solving.
693 78. Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the next.
694 This change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow).
695 79. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
696 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
697 80. Simple reflexes refers to Piaget's first sensorimotor substage, which corresponds to the first month after birth.
698 In this substage, the basic means of coordinating sensation and action is through reflexive behaviors, such as rooting and sucking, which the infant has at birth.
699 81. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
700 82. Nurture refers to the environmental influences on behavior due to nutrition, culture, socioeconomic status, and learning.
701 83. In Piaget's developmental theory, the first substage of sensorimotor development, in which infants know the world only in terms of their inherited action patterns is referred to as basic reflexes.
702 More generally, basic reflexes are genetically provided survival mechanisms.
703 84. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
704 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
705 85. Cooing is the spontaneous repetition of vowel sounds by infants.
706 86. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is called psychoanalytic theory.
707 The theory is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of development.
708 87. Psychoanalysis refers to the school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior.
709 It was Freud's method of exploring human personality.
710 88. Mary Cover Jones stands out as a pioneer of behavior therapy.
711 Her study of unconditioning a fear of rabbits in a three-year-old named Peter is her most often cited work.
712 89. The process of eliminating a classically conditioned response by pairing the CS with an unconditioned stimulus for a response that is stronger than the conditioned response and that cannot occur at the same time as the CR is called counterconditioning.
713 90. Spock was an American pediatrician whose book Baby and Child Care, published in 1946, is one of the biggest best-sellers of all time.
714 Its revolutionary message to mothers was that "you know more than you think you do." Spock was the first pediatrician to study psychoanalysis to try to understand children's needs and family dynamics.
715 91. The period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities is adolescence.
716 92. Nightmare was the original term for the state later known as waking dream, and more currently as sleep paralysis, associated with rapid eye movement (REM) periods of sleep.
717 93. The developmental period that extends from birth to 18 or 24 months is called infancy.
718 94. Wisdom is the ability to make correct judgments and decisions.
719 It is an intangible quality gained through experience.
720 Whether or not something is wise is determined in a pragmatic sense by its popularity, how long it has been around, and its ability to predict against future events.
721 95. Maladjustment is the condition of being unable to adapt properly to your environment with resulting emotional instability.
722 96. A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.
723 97. Inference is the act or process of drawing a conclusion based solely on what one already knows.
724 98. In everyday language depression refers to any downturn in mood, which may be relatively transitory and perhaps due to something trivial.
725 This is differentiated from Clinical depression which is marked by symptoms that last two weeks or more and are so severe that they interfere with daily living.
726 99. According to Plato, people must come equipped with most of their knowledge and need only hints and contemplation to complete it.
727 Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes and that one gained knowledge by reflecting on the contents of one's mind.
728 100. The law of effect is a principle of psychology described by Edward Thorndike in 1898. It holds that responses to stimuli that produce a satisfying or pleasant effect in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in the situation.
729 Conversely, responses that produce a discomforting or unpleasant effect are less likely to occur again in the situation 101. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
730 102. Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which an organism comes to associate or anticipate events.
731 A neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by a natural or unconditioned stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus.
732 103. The law of contiguity states that associations are formed between experiences that occur close together in time and space.
733 As a Gestalt perceptual concept, events that are near in time or space such that things that are near are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.
734 104. Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether they act as two separate systems.
735 105. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
736 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
737 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
738 106. Descartes was concerned with the sharp contrast between the certainty of mathematics and the controversial nature of philosophy, and came to believe that the sciences could be made to yield results as certain as those of mathematics.
739 He introduced the method of rationalism for arriving at knowledge.
740 He also saw the human condition as a competition between the body and soul, introducing the concept of dualism.
741 107. Epiphenomenalism argues that physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no effects of any kind.
742 Perception is a passive process.
743 108. McDougall was important in the development of the theory of instinct and of social psychology.
744 Opposing behaviorism, he argued that behavior was generally goal-oriented and purposive, an approach he called hormic psychology;
745 in the theory of motivation he held that individuals are motivated by a significant number of inherited instincts so they might not always understand their own goals.
746 109. There are three basic views of the mind-body problem:
747 mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (dualism);
748 mental events are to be reduced to physical events (materialism);
749 and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (phenomenalism).
750 110. Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin.
751 This school of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior.
752 It adressed how experience permits people to function better in our environment.
753 According to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can essentially be defined as complex interactions between different functional processes.
754 111. The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
755 112. Skinner defined behavior to include everything that an organism does, including thinking, feeling and speaking and argued that these phenomena were valid subject matters of psychology.
756 The term Radical Behaviorism refers to "everything an organism does is a behavior." 113. Methodological behaviorism states that behavior is either the only, or the easiest method of observation in psychology, and holds that it can be used to draw conclusions about mental states.
757 114. A psychoanalyst is a specially trained therapist who attempts to treat the individual by uncovering and revealing to the individual otherwise subconscious factors that are contributing to some undesirable behavor.
758 115. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
759 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
760 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
761 116. Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial psychology, and held controversial views on the reliability of witness testimony.
762 117. James' concept that the mind is a continuous flow of sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings is stream of consciousness.
763 Accordingly, consiousness cannot be reduced into elements.
764 118. Physiological psychology refers to the study of the physiological mechanisms, in the brain and elsewhere, that mediate behavior and psychological experiences.
765 119. Opposing behaviorism, McDougall argued that behavior was generally goal-oriented and purposive, an approach he called hormic psychology.
766 120. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
767 121. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
768 122. Subjective experience refers to reality as it is perceived and interpreted, not as it exists objectively.
769 123. Goal-directed behavior is means-end problem solving behavior.
770 In the infant, such behavior is first observed in the latter part of the first year.
771 124. Behavior therapy refers to the systematic application of the principles of learning to direct modification of a client's problem behaviors.
772 125. The Law of Recency means that all things being equal the most recently learned are best remembered.
773 We remember things we have done recently but have trouble remembering things we did a week or two ago.
774 Gestalt Psychology.
775 1. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment is called consciousness.
776 2. Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin.
777 This school of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior.
778 It adressed how experience permits people to function better in our environment.
779 According to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can essentially be defined as complex interactions between different functional processes.
780 3. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
781 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
782 4. Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, created the first laboratory in psychology in 1879. His methodology was based on introspection and his body of work founded the school of thought called Voluntarism.
783 5. According to Gestalt psychology, people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns.
784 The tendency is to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns.
785 6. Elementism is study of complex phenomena in terms of their basic parts or elements and the laws that describe them.
786 7. Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, not unlike the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts-water into hydrogen and oxygen for example.
787 He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind.
788 This approach became known as structuralism.
789 8. Pavlov first described the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning in experiments with dogs.
790 9. The attempt to focus on intact mental and behavioral phenomena without dividing those phenomena in any way refers to the molar approach.
791 10. Phenomenology is the study of subjective mental experiences;
792 a theme of humanistic theories of personality.
793 It studies meaningful, intact mental events without dividing them for further analysis.
794 11. In behavior modification, events that typically precede the target response are called antecedents.
795 12. Kant held that all known objects are phenomena of consciousness and not realities of the mind.
796 But, the known object is not a mere bundle of sensations for it includes unsensational characteristics or manifestation of a priori principles.
797 He insisted that the scientist and the philosopher approached nature with certain implicit principles, and Kant saw his task to be that of finding and making explicit these principles.
798 13. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
799 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
800 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
801 glia and neurons.
802 14. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
803 15. Ernst Mach held that scientific laws are summaries of experimental events, constructed for the purpose of human comprehension of complex data.
804 Thus scientific laws have more to do with the mind than with reality as it exists apart from the mind.
805 16. Although Max Wertheimer is to be credited as the founder of the movement of Gestalt psychology, the concept of Gestalt itself was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by von Ehrenfels in his famous work "Uber Gestaltqualitaten".
806 17. Brentano is generally regarded as the founder of act psychology which concerns itself with the acts of the mind rather than with the contents of the mind.
807 18. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
808 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
809 19. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 20. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
810 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
811 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
812 21. An attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily available is called problem solving.
813 22. Brentano stated that what is important is what the mind does, not what is contained within it.
814 In other words, psychology should focus on experience as an activity rather than on experience as a structure.
815 This idea became known as act psychology.
816 23. Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own thoughts, perceptions and mental processes.
817 Classic introspection was done through trained observers.
818 24. Stumpf was one of the earliest students of Brentano and always remained quite close to his early teachings.
819 Later in his life he became more and more interested in empirical methods in experimental psychology and effectively became one of the pioneers in this discipline.
820 25. Koffka was cofounder of the Gestalt school of psychology.
821 They stressed the approach that psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as combinations of elements:
822 parts derive their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities rather than their elements.
823 26. Kohler applied Gestalt principles to study chimpanzees and recorded their ability to devise and use tools and solve problems.
824 In 1917, he published and gained fame with The Mentality of Apes, in which he argued that his subjects, like humans, were capable of insight learning.
825 His work led to a radical revision of learning theory.
826 27. Apparent movement is the perceived motion of an object when all that has been presented to the eyes is one or a series of stills.
827 28. The phi phenomenon is a perceptual illusion described by Max Wertheimer, in which a disembodied perception of motion is produced by a succession of still images.
828 29. Acute means sudden, sharp, and abrupt.
829 Usually short in duration.
830 30. The social sciences use the term society to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed (or semi-open) social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
831 31. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
832 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
833 32. The essentials of friendship are reciprocity and commitment between individuals who see themselves more or less as equals.
834 Interaction between friends rests on a more equal power base than the interaction between children and adults.
835 33. Psychophysics refers to the study of the mathematical relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.
836 34. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
837 35. A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured.
838 Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number.
839 36. The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental processes.
840 37. An operational definition is the definition of a concept or action in terms of the observable and repeatable process, procedures, and appartaus that illustrates the concept or action.
841 38. An intelligence test is a standardized means of assessing a person's current mental ability, for example, the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
842 39. A school of thought in science that holds that a given concept must be defined in terms of a single set of identifiable and repeatable operations that can be measured, is referred to as operationism.
843 40. An IQ test is a standardized test developed to measure a person's cognitive abilities ("intelligence") in relation to their age group.
844 41. Lewin's field theory suggests that each person exists in a field of psychological forces-made up of the person's own desires, goals, and abilities as well as their perceptions of others' expectations or judgments.
845 42. The American Psychological Association is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. The mission statement is to "advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting health, education , and human welfare".
846 43. Apparent motion is the perceived motion of an object when all that has been presented to the eyes is one or a series of stills.
847 44. Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental physiologist and philospher.
848 He gave us the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for his theories of color perception and hearing.
849 45. Kohler's most fundamental commitment was to the principle of psychophysical isomorphism:
850 Because brain and mind are identical, the structure of conscious experience during perception or memory or problem solving necessarily mirrors the physical structure of activity in the brain.
851 46. A specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research is a hypothesis.
852 47. A person who studies the relationships between physical stimuli and their perception is called a psychophysicist.
853 48. Reflection is the process of rephrasing or repeating thoughts and feelings expressed, making the person more aware of what they are saying or thinking.
854 49. Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic.
855 50. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
856 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
857 51. Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment.
858 52. The most basic rule of gestalt is the law of pragnanz.
859 This law says that we try to experience things in as good a gestalt way as possible.
860 In this sense, "good" can mean several things, such as regular, orderly, simplistic, symmetrical, etc.
861 53. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
862 54. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
863 55. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
864 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
865 56. A dichotomy is the division of a proposition into two parts which are both mutually exclusive – i.e.
866 both cannot be simultaneously true – and jointly exhaustive – i.e.
867 they cover the full range of possible outcomes.
868 They are often contrasting and spoken of as "opposites".
869 57. Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale, as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features.
870 58. The tendency to perceive an object as being just as bright even though lighting conditions change its physical intensity is called brightness constancy.
871 59. The dimension of visual sensation that is dependent on the intensity of light reflected from a surface and that corresponds to the amplitude of the light wave is called brightness.
872 60. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
873 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
874 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
875 61. The Gestalt psychologists outlined what seemed to be several fundamental and universal principles of perceptual organization which described the principles by which the elements of perception are organized into configurations .
876 62. Inclusiveness is a principle of organization in which a larger percieved configuration hides smaller ones.
877 63. A change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus.
878 64. Trial and error is an approach to problem solving in which one solution after another is tried in no particular order until an answer is found.
879 65. In 1917, Köhler he published The Mentality of Apes, in which he argued that his subjects, like humans, were capable of insight learning.
880 His work led to a radical revision of learning theory.
881 66. Insightful Learning is charcaterized by (1) transition from presolution and solution is sudden and complete, (2) performance is smooth and free of errors, (3) insight is retained for a considerable length of time, and (4) principle easily applied to other problems .
882 67. Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to the theory of connectionism.
883 Among his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect.
884 68. Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
885 69. Rote learning, is a learning technique which avoids grasping the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard.
886 70. When a principle learned in one problem-solving situation is applied to the solution of another problem, the process is referred to as transposition.
887 71. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
888 72. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
889 73. Hull is best known for the Drive Reduction Theory which postulated that behavior occurs in response to primary drives such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, etc.
890 When the goal of the drive is attained the drive is reduced.
891 This reduction of drive serves as a reinforcer for learning.
892 74. Spence attributed improvement in performance to motivational factors rather than habit factors.
893 His Discrimination Learning Theory argued that reinforcement combined with frustration or inhibitors facilitates finding a correct stimulus among a cluster which includes incorrect ones.
894 75. In conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned is a generalization.
895 The greater the similarity among the stimuli, the greater the probability of generalization.
896 76. In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
897 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
898 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
899 77. Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory are the laws of association.
900 They are contiguity, similarity, and contrast.
901 78. An enduring mental representation of a person, place, or thing that evokes an emotional response and related behavior is called attitude.
902 79. An emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.
903 They are often accompanied by physiological changes.
904 80. A memory trace is the postulated assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus.
905 They are said to be held in sensory registers.
906 81. Lewin ranks as one of the pioneers of social psychology, as one of the founders of group dynamics and as one of the most eminent representatives of Gestalt psychology.
907 82. The term group dynamics implies that individual behaviors may differ depending on individuals' current or prospective connections to a sociological group.
908 83. Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each individual unique.
909 84. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
910 85. Aristotle can be credited with the development of the first theory of learning.
911 He concluded that ideas were generated in consciousness based on four principlesof association:
912 contiguity, similarity, contrast, and succession.
913 In contrast to Plato, he believed that knowledge derived from sensory experience and was not inherited.
914 86. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
915 87. Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior.
916 This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study groups.
917 88. Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular actions.
918 They are generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain kinds of situations.
919 89. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
920 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
921 90. Extrovert refers to a person whose attention is directed outward;
922 a bold, outgoing person.
923 91. Introvert refers to a person whose attention is focused inward;
924 a shy, reserved, timid person.
925 92. Life space, according to Lewin, is the sum total of the psychological facts of an individual.
926 93. The belief that only present facts can or should influence present thinking and behavior is the principle of contemporaneity.
927 94. The developmental period that extends from birth to 18 or 24 months is called infancy.
928 95. Lewin's tension-system hypothesis states that needs cause tensions that persist until they are satisfied.
929 96. The Zeigarnik effect states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
930 97. Clinical psychology is involved in the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of patients with mental or behavioral disorders, and conducts research in these various areas.
931 98. Psychoanalysis refers to the school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior.
932 It was Freud's method of exploring human personality.
933 99. Spinoza was a determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity.
934 All behavior is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do.
935 100. According to Plato, people must come equipped with most of their knowledge and need only hints and contemplation to complete it.
936 Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes and that one gained knowledge by reflecting on the contents of one's mind.
937 101. A type of conflict in which the goals are negative, but avoidance of one requires approaching the other is an avoidance-avoidance conflict.
938 102. Approach-avoidance conflict refers to the tension experienced by people when they are simultaneously attracted to and repulsed by the same goal.
939 103. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is called psychoanalytic theory.
940 The theory is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of development.
941 104. Neal Miller introduced the concepts of the approach gradient and avoidance gradient.
942 Whether organisms drive toward or away from a positive stimulus or a negative stimulus is a function of the distance that it is from that stimulus.
943 105. Interdependence is a dynamic of being mutually responsible to and dependent on others.
944 106. A type of group that fosters self-awareness by focusing on how group members relate to one another in a setting that encourages open expression of feelings is called an encounter group.
945 107. A habit is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus.
946 Early learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished after reinforcement is withdrawn.
947 108. The term authoritarian is used to describe a style that enforces strong and sometimes oppressive measures against those in its sphere of influence, generally without attempts at gaining their consent.
948 109. Return to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development is called regression.
949 110. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities into their basic parts and laws.
950 The method of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought.
951 111. Perceptual constancy is the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing.
952 112. A type of conflict in which the goals that produce opposing motives are positive and within reach is referred to as an approach-approach conflict.
953 113. Extrinsic Reinforcement means that the reinforcing stimulus is produced in the external environment.
954 114. A holist believes that complex mental or behavioral processes should be studied as such and not divided into their elemental components for analysis.
955 115. In intrinsic reinforcement the reinforcer occurs within the individual.
956 Behavior maintained by intrinsic reinforcement tends to be more resistant to extinction.
957 116. An illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception.
958 117. Beyond physiological needs for survivial, the next level are motivations that have an obvious biological basis but are not required for the immediate survival of the organism.
959 These biological needs include the powerful motivations for sex, parenting and aggression.
960 Humanistic Psychology.
961 1. According to Gestalt psychology, people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns.
962 The tendency is to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns.
963 2. Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin.
964 This school of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior.
965 It adressed how experience permits people to function better in our environment.
966 According to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can essentially be defined as complex interactions between different functional processes.
967 3. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
968 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
969 4. The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses is called behaviorism.
970 Behaviorism relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans.
971 5. Maslow is mostly noted today for his proposal of a hierarchy of human needs which he often presented as a pyramid.
972 Maslow was an instrumental player in the formation of the humanistic movement, also known as the third force in psychology.
973 6. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
974 7. In behavior modification, events that typically precede the target response are called antecedents.
975 8. In positive reinforcement, a stimulus is added and the rate of responding increases.
976 9. Phenomenology is the study of subjective mental experiences;
977 a theme of humanistic theories of personality.
978 It studies meaningful, intact mental events without dividing them for further analysis.
979 10. Brentano is generally regarded as the founder of act psychology which concerns itself with the acts of the mind rather than with the contents of the mind.
980 11. Existential psychology is partly based on the belief that human beings are alone in the world.
981 This aloneness leads to feelings of meaninglessness which can be overcome only by creating one’s own values and meanings 12. Guilt describes many concepts related to a negative emotion or condition caused by actions which are believed to be, morally wrong.
982 According to Freud, the avoidance of guilt is the basis for moral behavior.
983 13. A gene is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome.
984 It is the smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of hereditary information.
985 14. Bleuler is particularly notable for naming schizophrenia, a disorder which was previously known as dementia praecox.
986 Bleuler realised the condition was neither a dementia, nor did it always occur in young people (praecox meaning early) and so gave the condition the name from the Greek for split (schizo) and mind (phrene).
987 15. Jung was in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
988 He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
989 His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields.
990 16. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is called psychoanalytic theory.
991 The theory is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of development.
992 17. Rollo May was the best known American existential psychologist, authoring the influential book Love and Will in 1969. He differs from other humanistic psychologists in showing a sharper awareness of the tragic dimensions of human existence.
993 18. Clinical psychology is involved in the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of patients with mental or behavioral disorders, and conducts research in these various areas.
994 19. Self-alienation is an anti-evolutionary trend in which a personality withdraws from a wider boundary of relationships to a smaller one.
995 In the extreme, the person retracts his boundaries to within himself.
996 20. Realization that one's existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things is called self-awareness.
997 21. Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.
998 It involves divergent thinking, having many solutions or views to a problem.
999 22. Educational psychology is the study of how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations.
1000 23. Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
1001 24. Ecology refers to the branch of biology that deals with the relationships between living organisms and their environment.
1002 25. Adler argued that human personality could be explained teleologically, separate strands dominated by the guiding purpose of the individual's unconscious self ideal to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness).
1003 The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands.
1004 26. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
1005 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
1006 27. In psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism.
1007 28. His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology.
1008 In the latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to the problem of learning.
1009 29. An obsession is a thought or idea that the sufferer cannot stop thinking about.
1010 Common examples include fears of acquiring disease, getting hurt, or causing harm to someone.
1011 They are typically automatic, frequent, distressing, and difficult to control or put an end to by themselves.
1012 30. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
1013 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
1014 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
1015 31. The easiest kinds of motivation to analyse, at least superficially, are those based upon obvious physiological needs.
1016 These include hunger, thirst, and escape from pain.
1017 32. Self-actualization (a term originated by Kurt Goldstein) is the instinctual need of a human to make the most of their unique abilities.
1018 Maslow described it as follows:
1019 Self Actualization is the intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately, of what the organism is.
1020 33. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels:
1021 the four lower levels are grouped together as deficiency needs, while the top level is termed being needs.
1022 While our deficiency needs must be met, our being needs are continually shaping our behavior.
1023 34. Innate behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is present or predisposed at birth.
1024 35. Self-actualizing is the need of a human to make the most of their unique abilities.
1025 36. Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a philosophy:
1026 To find the meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences.
1027 This led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists.
1028 37. Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic school, based on his theory that unconscious motives control much behavior, that particular kinds of unconscious thoughts and memories are the source of neurosis, and that neurosis could be treated through bringing these unconscious thoughts and memories to consciousness in psychoanalytic treatment.
1029 38. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
1030 39. Parapsychology is the study of the evidence involving phenomena where a person seems to affect or to gain information about something through a means not currently explainable within the framework of mainstream, conventional science.
1031 40. A statistical technique for determining the degree of association between two or more variables is referred to as correlation.
1032 41. Client-Centered Therapy was developed by Carl Rogers.
1033 It is based on the principal of talking therapy and is a non-directive approach.
1034 The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change, but by listening and then mirroring back what the patient reveals to them, helps them to explore and understand their feelings for themselves.
1035 42. The degree to which scores differ among individuals in a distribution of scores is the variance.
1036 43. Mental disorder refers to a disturbance in a person's emotions, drives, thought processes, or behavior that involves serious and relatively prolonged distress and/or impairment in ability to function, is not simply a normal response to some event or set of events in the person's environment.
1037 44. Needs or desires that energize and direct behavior toward a goal are motives.
1038 45. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
1039 46. Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than behavioral variations.
1040 Natural selection requirements:
1041 (1) natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes of organisms and the environment in which they live.
1042 47. Paradigm refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.
1043 It provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are explored thoroughly.
1044 It may also blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with their subject matter.
1045 48. Carl Rogers was instrumental in the development of non-directive psychotherapy, also known as "client-centered" psychotherapy.
1046 Rogers' basic tenets were unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathic understanding, with each demonstrated by the counselor.
1047 Cognitive Psychology.
1048 1. Cognitive psychology is the psychological science which studies the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behavior.
1049 This covers a broad range of research domains, examining questions about the workings of memory, attention, perception, knowledge representation, reasoning, creativity and problem solving.
1050 2. Concept formation refers to the process of classifying information into meaningful categories based on like or unlike properties.
1051 3. An attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily available is called problem solving.
1052 4. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing while ignoring other things.
1053 Psychologists have labeled three types of attention:
1054 sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention.
1055 5. Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning.
1056 6. The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener.
1057 They were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of association.
1058 7. The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition.
1059 8. Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall." 9. Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the functional relations of dependency between body and mind.
1060 10. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
1061 Thus, to attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be relatively permanent and must result from experience.
1062 11. Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory are the laws of association.
1063 They are contiguity, similarity, and contrast.
1064 12. Piaget argued that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children rather than quantitative.
1065 There are two major aspects to his theory:
1066 the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability.
1067 13. The experimental study of the development of knowledge originated by Piaget, is called genetic epistemology.
1068 14. According to Piaget, the number of schemata available to an organism at any given time constitutes that organism's cognitive structure.
1069 How the organism interacts with its environment depends on the current cognitive structure available.
1070 As the cognitive structure develops, new assimilations can occur.
1071 15. Skinner defined behavior to include everything that an organism does, including thinking, feeling and speaking and argued that these phenomena were valid subject matters of psychology.
1072 The term Radical Behaviorism refers to "everything an organism does is a behavior." 16. Carl Rogers was instrumental in the development of non-directive psychotherapy, also known as "client-centered" psychotherapy.
1073 Rogers' basic tenets were unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathic understanding, with each demonstrated by the counselor.
1074 17. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels:
1075 the four lower levels are grouped together as deficiency needs, while the top level is termed being needs.
1076 While our deficiency needs must be met, our being needs are continually shaping our behavior.
1077 18. Maslow is mostly noted today for his proposal of a hierarchy of human needs which he often presented as a pyramid.
1078 Maslow was an instrumental player in the formation of the humanistic movement, also known as the third force in psychology.
1079 19. In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.
1080 It can be brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement.
1081 In social terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the basis of prejudice.
1082 20. Harlow and his famous wire and cloth surrogate mother monkey studies demonstrated that the need for affection created a stronger bond between mother and infant than did physical needs.
1083 He also found that the more discrimination problems the monkeys solved, the better they became at solving them.
1084 21. Cybernetics is the study of the communication and control of regulatory feedback, both in living beings and machines, and in combinations of the two.
1085 22. Feedback refers to information returned to a person about the effects a response has had.
1086 23. Information Theory defines the notion of channel capacity and provides a mathematical model by which one can compute the maximal amount of information that can be carried by a channel.
1087 24. Chomsky has greatly influenced the field of theoretical linguistics with his work on the theory of generative grammar.
1088 Accordingly, humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
1089 25. Lashley failed to find a single biological locus of memory suggesting to him that memories were not localized to one part of the brain, but were widely distributed throughout the cortex.
1090 26. The body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of neurons is a nervous system.
1091 27. The theory of social comparison processes, developed by Festinger, suggests that there are large areas of judgment in which reality depends on consensus;
1092 it is socially defined.
1093 He also developed the cognitive dissonance theory:
1094 cognitions that are not in harmony act like drives, motivating actions to resolve dissonance.
1095 28. Cognitive dissonance is a state of opposition between cognitions.
1096 Contradicting cognitions serve as a driving force that compel the mind to acquire or invent new thoughts or beliefs, or to modify existing beliefs, so as to minimize the amount of dissonance between cognitions.
1097 29. Frederic Bartlett demonstrated that learning processes are reliant on our past experiences and memories.
1098 He was one of the forerunners of cognitive psychology.
1099 30. Bruner has had an enormous impact on educational psychology with his contributions to cognitive learning theory.
1100 His ideas are based on categorization, maintaining that people interpret the world in terms of its similarities and differences.
1101 31. Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to the theory of connectionism.
1102 Among his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect.
1103 32. Hull is best known for the Drive Reduction Theory which postulated that behavior occurs in response to primary drives such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, etc.
1104 When the goal of the drive is attained the drive is reduced.
1105 This reduction of drive serves as a reinforcer for learning.
1106 33. Goal-directed behavior is means-end problem solving behavior.
1107 In the infant, such behavior is first observed in the latter part of the first year.
1108 34. According to Gestalt psychology, people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns.
1109 The tendency is to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns.
1110 35. In behavior modification, events that typically precede the target response are called antecedents.
1111 36. Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.
1112 37. Human nature is the fundamental nature and substance of humans, as well as the range of human behavior that is believed to be invariant over long periods of time and across very different cultural contexts.
1113 38. Social cognitive theory defines human behavior as a triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment.
1114 Response consequences of a behavior are used to form expectations of behavioral outcomes.
1115 It is the ability to form these expectations that give humans the capability to predict the outcomes of their behavior, before the behavior is performed.
1116 39. Cognitive theories emphasize thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and language.
1117 Contributions include an emphasis on the active construction of understanding and developmental changes in thinking.
1118 Criticisms include giving too little attention to individual variations and underrating the unconscious aspects of thought.
1119 40. The work of Kagan supports the concept of an inborn, biologically based temperamental predisposition to severe anxiety.
1120 41. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior must be the result of the change.
1121 42. Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon.
1122 They are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
1123 43. A paradigm shift is the process and result of a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science.
1124 44. George Miller provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to the information processing framework and cognitive psychology:
1125 chunking and the capacity of short term memory.
1126 45. The Turing test is a proposal for a test of a machine's capability to perform human-like conversation.
1127 A human judge engages in a natural language conversation with two other parties, one a human and the other a machine;
1128 if the judge cannot reliably tell which is which, then the machine is said to pass the test.
1129 46. Brentano defined intentionality as the main characteristic of "psychical phenomena," by which they could be distinguished from "physical phenomena.".
1130 Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object).
1131 47. Dualism is a set of beliefs which begins with the claim that the mental and the physical have a fundamentally different nature.
1132 It is contrasted with varying kinds of monism, including materialism and phenomenalism.
1133 Dualism is one answer to the mind-body problem.
1134 48. The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature.
1135 Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning.
1136 The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells:
1137 glia and neurons.
1138 49. Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same consequent must always follow.
1139 50. There are three basic views of the mind-body problem:
1140 mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (dualism);
1141 mental events are to be reduced to physical events (materialism);
1142 and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (phenomenalism).
1143 51. Cognitive Science is the scientific study of the mind and brain and how they give rise to behavior.
1144 The field is highly interdisciplinary and is closely related to several other areas, including psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics and psycholinguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, logic, robotics, anthropology and biology.
1145 52. Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which an organism comes to associate or anticipate events.
1146 A neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by a natural or unconditioned stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus.

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