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| 1 |
Introduction. |
| 2 |
1.
The
awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced
at a given moment is called consciousness. |
| 3 |
2.
Psyche is
the soul, spirit, or mind as distinguished from the body. |
| 4 |
In
psychoanalytic theory, it is the totality of the id, ego, and superego,
including both conscious and unconscious components. |
| 5 |
3.
Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and
organizing sensory information. |
| 6 |
4.
Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic
events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor
cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental
state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue
wall." 5. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that
results from experience. |
| 7 |
Thus,
to
attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be
relatively permanent and must result from experience. |
| 8 |
6.
Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual
people differ in their behavior. |
| 9 |
This
is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although
psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists
invariably study groups. |
| 10 |
7.
Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that
differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each
individual unique. |
| 11 |
8.
The
orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called
maturation. |
| 12 |
9.
Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing
the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon. |
| 13 |
They
are
broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. |
| 14 |
10.
Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict,
and control behavior. |
| 15 |
Scientific
method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate
information. |
| 16 |
It
includes
these steps: |
| 17 |
understand
the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research
conclusions. |
| 18 |
11.
The
extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure is
called validity. |
| 19 |
12.
Darwin
achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through
natural selection. |
| 20 |
His
book
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the
first text on comparative psychology. |
| 21 |
13.
Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one
thing while ignoring other things. |
| 22 |
Psychologists
have labeled three types of attention: |
| 23 |
sustained
attention, selective attention, and divided attention. |
| 24 |
14.
Allport
was a trait theorist. |
| 25 |
Those
traits
he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central
traits. |
| 26 |
Traits
such
that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal
traits. |
| 27 |
Central
traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors. |
| 28 |
15.
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an environment
that (a) occurs after the behavior, (b) seems to make that behavior
re-occur more often in the future and (c) that reoccurence of behavior
must be the result of the change. |
| 29 |
16.
Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social
behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and
how they relate to each other. |
| 30 |
17.
Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would
study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities
into their basic parts and laws. |
| 31 |
The
method
of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought. |
| 32 |
18.
The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three
basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form
experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener. |
| 33 |
They
were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made
up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of
association. |
| 34 |
19.
Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character,
personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the
head (reading "bumps"). |
| 35 |
Developed
by
Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now
discredited as a pseudoscience. |
| 36 |
20.
A conditioned response is the response to a stimulus that occurs when
an animal has learned to associate the stimulus with a certain positive
or negative effect. |
| 37 |
21.
In
psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions
of an organism. |
| 38 |
22.
Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in
the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the
next. |
| 39 |
This
change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural
selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow). |
| 40 |
23.
The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and
homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid
balance and body temperature. |
| 41 |
Functions
of
the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor
learning and other sorts of learning. |
| 42 |
The
brain is
primarily made up of two types of cells: |
| 43 |
glia
and
neurons. |
| 44 |
24.
Either
of the two halves that make up the cerebrum is referred to as a
cerebral hemisphere. |
| 45 |
The
hemispheres operate together, linked by the corpus callosum, a very
large bundle of nerve fibers, and also by other smaller commissures. |
| 46 |
25.
Subjective experience refers to reality as it is perceived and
interpreted, not as it exists objectively. |
| 47 |
26.
Direct
observation refers to assessing behavior through direct surveillance. |
| 48 |
27.
Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of
being disproved using observation or experiment. |
| 49 |
28.
Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth
should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith,
dogma or religious teaching. |
| 50 |
Rationalism
has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism,
in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical
discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs. |
| 51 |
29.
Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern
scientific method, that our theories should be based on our
observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic. |
| 52 |
30.
The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that
the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather
than faith, dogma or religious teaching. |
| 53 |
31.
A causal law asserts that a circumstance of such and such kind is
invariably linked to a phenomenon of a special kind, no matter where or
when it occurs. |
| 54 |
32.
Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more
objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same
consequent must always follow. |
| 55 |
33.
Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event,
including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an
unbroken chain of prior occurrences. |
| 56 |
34.
Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which
functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other
periods. |
| 57 |
35.
Paradigm
refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline
during a particular period of time. |
| 58 |
It
provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a
certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are
explored thoroughly. |
| 59 |
Itmay
also
blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with
their subject matter. |
| 60 |
36.
Normal science refers to the relatively routine work of scientists
experimenting within a paradigm, slowly accumulating detail in accord
with established broad theory, not actually challenging or attempting
to test the underlying assumptions of that theory. |
| 61 |
37.
Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses
the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of
behavior 38. Predisposition refers to an inclination or diathesis to
respond in a certain way, either inborn or acquired. |
| 62 |
In
abnormal
psychology, it is a factor that lowers the ability to withstand stress
and inclines the individual toward pathology. |
| 63 |
39.
Human nature is the fundamental nature and substance of humans, as well
as the range of human behavior that is believed to be invariant over
long periods of time and across very different cultural contexts. |
| 64 |
40.
A
gene
is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome. |
| 65 |
It
is
the
smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of
hereditary information. |
| 66 |
41.
Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a
philosophy: |
| 67 |
To
find
the
meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences. |
| 68 |
This
led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and
effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and
behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists. |
| 69 |
42.
Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the
mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether
they act as two separate systems. |
| 70 |
43
Dualism is a set of beliefs which begins with the claim that the mental
and the physical have a fundamentally different nature. |
| 71 |
It
is
contrasted with varying kinds of monism, including materialism and
phenomenalism. |
| 72 |
Dualism
is
one answer to the mind-body problem. |
| 73 |
44
Sperry separated the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to
transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres, to treat
epileptics. |
| 74 |
He
then tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependant
on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two
halves of the brain now had independent functions. |
| 75 |
45.
Epiphenomenalism argues that physical events have mental effects, but
mental events have no effects of any kind. |
| 76 |
Perception
is a passive process. |
| 77 |
46.
Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be
separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior. |
| 78 |
47.
A
nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard
wired into the brain at birth. |
| 79 |
48.
A mechanist is one who believes that all phenomena relating to life are
based on physical and chemical properties only. |
| 80 |
49.
Freud's
theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality is
called psychoanalytic theory. |
| 81 |
The
theory
is a developmental theory characterized by critical stages of
development. |
| 82 |
50.
Jung was
in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. |
| 83 |
He
proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted
personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious. |
| 84 |
His
work
has
been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion,
literature, and related fields. |
| 85 |
51.
A
quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and
can therefore be measured. |
| 86 |
Measurements
of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific
quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. |
| 87 |
52.
The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of
observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and
responses is called behaviorism. |
| 88 |
Behaviorism
relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles
governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans. |
| 89 |
53.
Innate
behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is
present or predisposed at birth. |
| 90 |
54.
A
sensory receptor is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the
internal or external environment of an organism. |
| 91 |
In
response to stimuli the sensory receptor initiates sensory transduction
by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or
in an adjacent one. |
| 92 |
55.
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception
whereby the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial
information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. |
| 93 |
56.
There
are three basic views of the mind-body problem: |
| 94 |
mental
and
physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each
other (dualism); |
| 95 |
mental
events are to be reduced to physical events (materialism); |
| 96 |
and
physical
events are to be reduced to mental events (phenomenalism). |
| 97 |
57.
Idealism
relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images. |
| 98 |
It
is usually juxtaposed with realism in which the real is said to have
absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge. |
| 99 |
58.
An
emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than
through conscious effort. |
| 100 |
They
are
often accompanied by physiological changes. |
| 101 |
59.
An unconscious defense mechanism in which the individual directs
aggressive or sexual feelings away from the primary object to someone
or something safe is referred to as displacement. |
| 102 |
Displacement
in linguistics is simply the ability to talk about things not present. |
| 103 |
Voluntarism,
Structuralism, and Other Early Approaches to Psychology. |
| 104 |
1.
Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as
one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is
susceptible to the experimental method. |
| 105 |
2.
Helmholtz
a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous experimental
physiologist and philospher. |
| 106 |
He
gave
us
the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for
his theories of color perception and hearing. |
| 107 |
34.
Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the
functional relations of dependency between body and mind. |
| 108 |
5.
Attention
is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one thing
while ignoring other things. |
| 109 |
Psychologists
have labeled three types of attention: |
| 110 |
sustained
attention, selective attention, and divided attention. |
| 111 |
6.
Selective attention is a type of attention which involves focusing on a
specific aspect of a scene while ignoring other aspects. |
| 112 |
7.
A
change
in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a stimulus. |
| 113 |
8.
The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three
basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form
experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener. |
| 114 |
They
were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made
up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of
association. |
| 115 |
9.
Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were
so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory
of psychology Voluntarism. |
| 116 |
10.
Paradigm
refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline
during a particular period of time. |
| 117 |
It
provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a
certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are
explored thoroughly. |
| 118 |
Itmay
also
blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with
their subject matter. |
| 119 |
11.
Herbart regarded psychology as concerned with elementary bits of
experiences, sensations in our terminology, which combined to form
ideas. |
| 120 |
Ideas,
he
held, are the real contents of the mind. |
| 121 |
To
this
extent he followed the British associationists. |
| 122 |
12
Those
laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory
are the laws of association. |
| 123 |
They
are
contiguity, similarity, and contrast. |
| 124 |
13
Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern
scientific method, that our theories should be based on our
observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic. |
| 125 |
14.
Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurologic
events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor
cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental
state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue
wall." 15. Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as
one would study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing
complex entities into their basic parts and laws. |
| 126 |
The
method
of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought. |
| 127 |
16.
The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and
organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred
to as physiology. |
| 128 |
17.
Constant factors in a person's psychology and physiology that
consistently predicts individual differences, is that person's personal
equation. |
| 129 |
18.
Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and
organizing sensory information. |
| 130 |
19.
His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion
gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology. |
| 131 |
In
the
latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to
the problem of learning. |
| 132 |
20
The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences
privately but that cannot be observed directly are called mental
processes. |
| 133 |
21.
Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own
thoughts, perceptions and mental processes. |
| 134 |
Classic
introspection was done through trained observers. |
| 135 |
22.
A
person
who studies the relationships between physical stimuli and their
perception is called a psychophysicist. |
| 136 |
23.
The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and
homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid
balance and body temperature. |
| 137 |
Functions
of
the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor
learning and other sorts of learning. |
| 138 |
The
brain is
primarily made up of two types of cells: |
| 139 |
glia
and
neurons. |
| 140 |
24.
A
newly
experienced sensation is related to past experiences to form an
understood situation. |
| 141 |
For
Wundt, consciousness is composed of two "stages:" There is a large
capacity working memory called the Blickfeld and the narrower
consciousness called Apperception, or selective attention. |
| 142 |
25.
Schizophrenia is characterized by persistent defects in the perception
or expression of reality. |
| 143 |
A
person suffering from untreated schizophrenia typically demonstrates
grossly disorganized thinking, and may also experience delusions or
auditory hallucinations 26. Mental illness is the term formerly used to
mean psychological disorder but less preferred because it implies that
the causes of the disorder can be found in a medical disease process. |
| 144 |
27.
The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that
the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather
than faith, dogma or religious teaching. |
| 145 |
28.
The
amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as
reaction time. |
| 146 |
29.
A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers or axons,
which includes the glia that ensheath the axons in myelin. |
| 147 |
Neurons
are
sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is technically imprecise
since many neurons do not form nerves. |
| 148 |
30.
Donders discovered that farsightedness was caused by too shallow an
eyeball and that astigmatism was caused by uneven curvature of the
cornea or lens. |
| 149 |
31
In
Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli. |
| 150 |
It
can
be
brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement. |
| 151 |
In
social
terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the
basis of prejudice. |
| 152 |
32.
A
variable refers to a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of
an individual or a system. |
| 153 |
33.
The
event that precedes another event is called the antecedent condition. |
| 154 |
34.
Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more
objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same
consequent must always follow. |
| 155 |
35.
Naturalistic observation is a method of observation that involves
observing subjects in their natural habitats. |
| 156 |
Researchers
take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior they
are observing by using unobtrusive methods. |
| 157 |
36.
Cultural
psychology came about in 1960s and 1970s but really became prominent in
the 1990’s. |
| 158 |
Contains
the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, thus there are no
universal laws for how the mind works and that psychological theories
grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when
applied to a different culture. |
| 159 |
37.
The intellectual processes through which information is obtained,
transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition. |
| 160 |
38.
Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small
samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a
given individual. |
| 161 |
The
technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics. |
| 162 |
39.
Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social
behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and
how they relate to each other. |
| 163 |
40.
Paradoxical intention refers to instructing clients to do the opposite
of the desired behavior. |
| 164 |
Telling
an
impotent man not to have sex or an insomniac not to sleep reduces
anxiety to perform. |
| 165 |
41.
Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals in order
to infer similar functionaility in humans. |
| 166 |
42.
Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and
negative reinforcement, and demonstrated operant conditioning, a
technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning. |
| 167 |
43.
An
emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than
through conscious effort. |
| 168 |
They
are
often accompanied by physiological changes. |
| 169 |
44.
The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond
to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined
region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted. |
| 170 |
45.
The law of contiguity states that associations are formed between
experiences that occur close together in time and space. |
| 171 |
As
a Gestalt perceptual concept, events that are near in time or space
such that things that are near are more likely to be perceived as
belonging together. |
| 172 |
46.
Mind-body relationship is the philosophical issue regarding whether the
mind and body operate indistinguishably as a single system or whether
they act as two separate systems. |
| 173 |
41.
Double aspectism suggests that material and mental events cannot be
separated as different entities but are unified to produce behavior. |
| 174 |
42.
An
action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others
is called abnormal behavior. |
| 175 |
43.
Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in
the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the
next. |
| 176 |
This
change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural
selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow). |
| 177 |
44.
Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than
behavioral variations. |
| 178 |
Natural
selection requirements: |
| 179 |
(1)
natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some
individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only
takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes
of organisms and the environment in which they live. |
| 180 |
45.
Sullivan developed the Self System, a configuration of the personality
traits developed in childhood and reinforced by positive affirmation
and the security operations developed in childhood to avoid anxiety and
threats to self-esteem. |
| 181 |
46.
Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic school, based on
his theory that unconscious motives control much behavior, that
particular kinds of unconscious thoughts and memories are the source of
neurosis, and that neurosis could be treated through bringing these
unconscious thoughts and memories to consciousness in psychoanalytic
treatment. |
| 182 |
47.
Koffka
was cofounder of the Gestalt school of psychology. |
| 183 |
They
stressed
the approach that psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as
combinations of elements: |
| 184 |
parts
derive
their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities
rather than their elements. |
| 185 |
48.
In
a
double-blind experiment, neither the individuals nor the researchers
know who belongs to the control group. |
| 186 |
Only
after
all the data are recorded may researchers be permitted to learn which
individuals are which. |
| 187 |
Performing
an experiment in double-blind fashion is a way to lessen the influence
of prejudices and unintentional physical cues on the results. |
| 188 |
49.
Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a
philosophy: |
| 189 |
To
find
the
meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences. |
| 190 |
This
led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and
effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and
behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists. |
| 191 |
50.
Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility
and practicality as vital components of truth. |
| 192 |
Pragmatism
objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent
reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and
rationalist schools of philosophy. |
| 193 |
51.
Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
experience. |
| 194 |
Thus,
to
attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be
relatively permanent and must result from experience. |
| 195 |
52.
Mediate experience refers to an experience that is provided by various
measuring devices and is therefore not immediate, direct experience. |
| 196 |
The
Darwinian Influence. |
| 197 |
1.
Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as
one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is
susceptible to the experimental method. |
| 198 |
2.
The
awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced
at a given moment is called consciousness. |
| 199 |
3.
Temperament refers to a basic, innate disposition to change behavior. |
| 200 |
The
activity
level is an important dimension of temperament. |
| 201 |
4.
Personality refers to the pattern of enduring characteristics that
differentiates a person, the patterns of behaviors that make each
individual unique. |
| 202 |
5.
Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than
behavioral variations. |
| 203 |
Natural
selection requirements: |
| 204 |
(1)
natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some
individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only
takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes
of organisms and the environment in which they live. |
| 205 |
6.
Darwin
achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through
natural selection. |
| 206 |
His
book
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the
first text on comparative psychology. |
| 207 |
10.
Species
refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population. |
| 208 |
11.
Lamarck proposed a theory of evolution based on the idea that
individuals adapt during their own lifetimes and transmit traits they
acquire to their offspring, the "inheritance of acquired traits." In
spite of its being largely discredited, Darwin and others acknowledged
him as an early proponent of ideas about evolution. |
| 209 |
12.
Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in
the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the
next. |
| 210 |
This
change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural
selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow). |
| 211 |
13.
The
body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of
neurons is a nervous system. |
| 212 |
14.
Bain was the originator of the theory of psycho-physical parallelism,
which is used so widely as a working basis by modern psychologists. |
| 213 |
His
idea of applying the natural history method of classification to
psychical phenomena gave scientific character to his work, the value of
which was enhanced by his methodical exposition and his command of
illustration. |
| 214 |
15.
Empiricism is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern
scientific method, that our theories should be based on our
observations of the world rather than on intuition, or deductive logic. |
| 215 |
16.
Nativism
is the view that certain skills or abilities are innate or hard wired
into the brain at birth. |
| 216 |
This
is in contrast to the 'blank slate' or tabula rasa view which states
that the brain has little innate ability and almost everything is
learnt through interaction with the environment. |
| 217 |
17.
Instinct
is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards particular
actions. |
| 218 |
They
are
generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain
kinds of situations. |
| 219 |
18.
A
habit
is a response that has become completely separated from its eliciting
stimulus. |
| 220 |
Early
learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however
not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished
after reinforcement is withdrawn. |
| 221 |
19.
Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are
altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits
that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and
reproduce. |
| 222 |
20.
Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual
people differ in their behavior. |
| 223 |
This
is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although
psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists
invariably study groups. |
| 224 |
21.
The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin makes the argument that groups
of organisms gradually evolve through the process of natural selection. |
| 225 |
Characteristics
that favor survival and reproduction are passed on to the next
generation, those that do not, are gradually lost. |
| 226 |
22.
An
emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than
through conscious effort. |
| 227 |
They
are
often accompanied by physiological changes. |
| 228 |
23.
Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
experience. |
| 229 |
Thus,
to
attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be
relatively permanent and must result from experience. |
| 230 |
24.
The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change
occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology. |
| 231 |
25.
The scientific study whose objectives are to describe, explain,
predict, and control behaviors that are considered strange or unusual
is referred to as abnormal psychology. |
| 232 |
26.
Behavioral genetics is the field of biology that studies the role of
genetics in behavior. |
| 233 |
27.
A
gene
is an ultramicroscopic area of the chromosome. |
| 234 |
It
is
the
smallest physical unit of the DNA molecule that carries a piece of
hereditary information. |
| 235 |
28.
Inclusive fitness is the sum of an individual's own reproductive
success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success
of related others. |
| 236 |
29.
Altruism
is being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being
rewarded for one's efforts. |
| 237 |
This
is
distinct from merely helping others. |
| 238 |
30.
Evolutionary psychology proposes that cognition and behavior can be
better understood in light of evolutionary history. |
| 239 |
31.
Galton was one of the first experimental psychologists, and the founder
of the field of Differential Psychology, which concerns itself with
individual differences rather than on common trends. |
| 240 |
He
created
the statistical methods correlation and regression. |
| 241 |
32.
Nature-nurture is a shorthand expression for debates about the relative
importance of an individual's "nature" versus personal experiences
("nurture") in determining or causing physical and behavioral traits. |
| 242 |
33.
Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one
thing while ignoring other things. |
| 243 |
Psychologists
have labeled three types of attention: |
| 244 |
sustained
attention, selective attention, and divided attention. |
| 245 |
34.
A
subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily
expressions noticeable to others is called affect. |
| 246 |
35.
In
psychoanalysis, the uncensored uttering of all thoughts that come to
mind is called free association. |
| 247 |
36.
In
psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions
of an organism. |
| 248 |
37.
A statistical technique for determining the degree of association
between two or more variables is referred to as correlation. |
| 249 |
38.
Return
to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development
is called regression. |
| 250 |
39.
In statistics, central tendency is an average of a set of measurements,
the word average being variously construed as mean, median, or other
measure of location, depending on the context. |
| 251 |
Central
tendency is a descriptive statistic analogous to center of mass in
physical terms. |
| 252 |
40.
The field concerned with improving the hereditary qualities of the
human race through social control of mating and reproduction is called
eugenics. |
| 253 |
41.
Correlation coefficient refers to a number from +1.00 to -1.00 that
expresses the direction and extent of the relationship between two
variables. |
| 254 |
The
closer to
1, the stronger the relationship. |
| 255 |
The
sign, +
or -, indicates the direction. |
| 256 |
42.
Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test, the
Binet-Simon intelligence scale, in 1905. Binet stressed that the core
of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes, such as
memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgment; |
| 257 |
and,
that
these developed over time in the individual. |
| 258 |
43.
Piaget
argued that young children's answers were qualitatively different than
older children rather than quantitative. |
| 259 |
There
are two
major aspects to his theory: |
| 260 |
the
process
of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually
acquire this ability. |
| 261 |
44.
Longitudinal study refers to a type of developmental study in which the
same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages
on some set of behaviors. |
| 262 |
45.
Perception
is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing
sensory information. |
| 263 |
46.
Mental retardation refers to having significantly below-average
intellectual functioning and limitations in at least two areas of
adaptive functioning. |
| 264 |
Many
categorize retardation as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. |
| 265 |
47.
The
modern field of intelligence testing began with the Binet–Simon scale
of intelligence. |
| 266 |
It
started
as a standard way for psychologists to quickly and easily compare the
psychological functioning of different people. |
| 267 |
48.
The term normative is used to describe the effects of those structures
of culture which regulate the function of social activity. |
| 268 |
49.
Terman revised the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916, commonly
used to measure intelligence (or I.Q.) in the United States. |
| 269 |
William
Stern's suggestion that mental age/chronological age times 100 (to get
rid of the decimal) be made the "intelligence quotient" or I.Q. This
apparent mathematization of the measurement gave it an air of
scientific accuracy and detachment which contributed greatly to its
acceptance among educators and the broad public. |
| 270 |
50.
Cyril
Burt was controversial for his conclusions that genetics substantially
influence mental and behavioral traits. |
| 271 |
51.
Heritability It is that proportion of the observed variation in a
particular phenotype within a particular population, that can be
attributed to the contribution of genotype. |
| 272 |
In
other
words: |
| 273 |
it
measures
the extent to which differences between individuals in a population are
due their being different genetically. |
| 274 |
52.
Heredity
is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring through
their genes. |
| 275 |
53.
Phrenology is a theory which claims to be able to determine character,
personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the
head (reading "bumps"). |
| 276 |
Developed
by
Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now
discredited as a pseudoscience. |
| 277 |
54.
The
orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code is called
maturation. |
| 278 |
55.
Sears focused on the application of the social learning theory (SLT) to
socialization processes, and how children internalize the values,
attitudes, and behaviors predominant in their culture. |
| 279 |
He
articulated the place of parents in fostering internalization. |
| 280 |
In
addition, he was among the first social learning theorists to
officially acknowledge the reciprocal interaction on an individual's
behavior and their environment 56. Cronbach is most famous for the
development of Cronbach's alpha, a method for determining the
reliability of educational and psychological tests. |
| 281 |
His
work on test reliability reached an acme with the creation of
generalizability theory, a statistical model for identifying and
quantifying the sources of measurement error. |
| 282 |
57.
Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small
samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a
given individual. |
| 283 |
The
technical term for psychological testing is psychometrics. |
| 284 |
58.
In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of
one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken
the same test are referred to as norms. |
| 285 |
59.
Psychological test refers to a standardized measure of a sample of a
person's behavior. |
| 286 |
60.
An intelligence test is a standardized means of assessing a person's
current mental ability, for example, the Stanford-Binet test and the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. |
| 287 |
61.
Herrnstein was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did
pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior and formulated the "Matching Law" in the 1960s, a
breakthrough in understanding how reinforcement and behavior are linked. |
| 288 |
62.
An oral or written assessment for which an individual receives a score
indicating how the individual reponded relative to a previously tested
large sample of others is referred to as a standardized test. |
| 289 |
63.
An IQ test is a standardized test developed to measure a person's
cognitive abilities ("intelligence") in relation to their age group. |
| 290 |
64.
Biological Determinism refers to the type of determinism that stresses
the biochemical , genetic , physiological , or anatomical causes of
behavior 65. In statistics, regression toward the mean is a principle
stating that of related measurements, the second is expected to be
closer to the mean than the first. |
| 291 |
Regression
toward the mean is a statistical phenomenon which causes outcomes to be
more likely to fall toward the center of a statistical distribution. |
| 292 |
66.
Innate
behavior is not learned or influenced by the environment, rather, it is
present or predisposed at birth. |
| 293 |
67.
A
nativist believes that certain skills or abilities are native or hard
wired into the brain at birth. |
| 294 |
Functionalism. |
| 295 |
1.
The
awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced
at a given moment is called consciousness. |
| 296 |
2.
The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three
basic elements sensations, feelings, and images which combine to form
experience is structuralism-- a term coined by Titchener. |
| 297 |
They
were associationists in that they believed that complex ideas were made
up of simpler ideas that were combined in accordance with the laws of
association. |
| 298 |
3.
Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, not unlike
the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component
parts-water into hydrogen and oxygen for example. |
| 299 |
He
conceived
of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and
sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind. |
| 300 |
This
approach became known as structuralism. |
| 301 |
4.
Functionalism as a psychology developed out of Pragmatism as a
philosophy: |
| 302 |
To
find
the
meaning of an idea, you have to look at its consequences. |
| 303 |
This
led William James and his students towards an emphasis on cause and
effect, prediction and control, and observation of environment and
behavior, over the careful introspection of the Structuralists. |
| 304 |
5.
Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as
one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is
susceptible to the experimental method. |
| 305 |
6.
In
1690,
Locke wrote his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. |
| 306 |
The
essay
arugued for empiricism, that ideas come only from experience. |
| 307 |
In
other
words, there are no innate ideas. |
| 308 |
The
tabula
rasa or blank slate was his metaphor. |
| 309 |
7.
Introspection is the self report or consideration of one's own
thoughts, perceptions and mental processes. |
| 310 |
Classic
introspection was done through trained observers. |
| 311 |
8.
Quick,
impulsive thought that does not make use of formal logic or clear
reasoning is referred to as intuition. |
| 312 |
9.
Reid
was
the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, and played an
integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment. |
| 313 |
He
advocated direct realism, or common sense realism, and argued strongly
against the Theory of Ideas advocated by John Locke and René
Descartes. |
| 314 |
10.
Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and
organizing sensory information. |
| 315 |
11.
Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one
thing while ignoring other things. |
| 316 |
Psychologists
have labeled three types of attention: |
| 317 |
sustained
attention, selective attention, and divided attention. |
| 318 |
12.
The senses are systems that consist of a sensory cell type that respond
to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined
region within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted. |
| 319 |
13.
Empirical means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of
being disproved using observation or experiment. |
| 320 |
14.
Individual differences psychology studies the ways in which individual
people differ in their behavior. |
| 321 |
This
is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although
psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists
invariably study groups. |
| 322 |
15.
Evolutionary theory is concerned with heritable variability rather than
behavioral variations. |
| 323 |
Natural
selection requirements: |
| 324 |
(1)
natural variability within a species must exist, (2) only some
individual differences are heritable, and (3) natural selection only
takes place when there is an interaction between the inborn attributes
of organisms and the environment in which they live. |
| 325 |
16.
Adaptation is a lowering of sensitivity to a stimulus following
prolonged exposure to that stimulus. |
| 326 |
Behavioral
adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive
in its natural habitat. |
| 327 |
17.
According to Cooper, individuality consists of two dimensions: |
| 328 |
self-assertion
and separateness. |
| 329 |
18.
Functionalism was created by William James and influenced by Darwin. |
| 330 |
This
school
of psychology focuses on past experience and behavior. |
| 331 |
It
adressed
how experience permits people to function better in our environment. |
| 332 |
According
to functionalism, the mental states that make up consciousness can
essentially be defined as complex interactions between different
functional processes. |
| 333 |
19.
A
reflex
arc is the neural pathway mediating a reflex. |
| 334 |
It
generally
does not involve the brain. |
| 335 |
Instead
of the brain it can include a spinal reflex integration center composed
of interneurons to connect affector and effector signals. |
| 336 |
20.
Dewey is one of the three central figures in American pragmatism though
he did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, and instead
referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism". |
| 337 |
He
established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the
United States, at the University of Chicago in 1894. 21. Paradigm
refers to the set of practices that defines a scientific discipline
during a particular period of time. |
| 338 |
It
provides a framework from which to conduct research, it ensures that a
certain range of phenomena, those on which the paradigm focuses, are
explored thoroughly. |
| 339 |
Itmay
also
blind scientists to other, perhaps more fruitful, ways of dealing with
their subject matter. |
| 340 |
22.
Kuhn is most famous for his book The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions in which he presented the idea that science does not evolve
gradually toward truth, but instead undergoes periodic revolutions
which he calls "paradigm shifts." 23. The thoughts, feelings, and
motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be
observed directly are called mental processes. |
| 341 |
24.
In
psychology, motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions
of an organism. |
| 342 |
25.
Commonly used to refer to gradual change, evolution is the change in
the frequency of alleles within a population from one generation to the
next. |
| 343 |
This
change may be caused by different mechanisms, including natural
selection, genetic drift, or changes in population (gene flow). |
| 344 |
26.
Darwin
achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through
natural selection. |
| 345 |
His
book
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals is generally considered the
first text on comparative psychology. |
| 346 |
27.
Hilgard
made headlines as a pioneer in the scientific study of hypnosis. |
| 347 |
He
and
his
wife, Josephine, established the Laboratory of Hypnosis Research at
Stanford. |
| 348 |
28.
Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, created the
first laboratory in psychology in 1879. His methodology was based on
introspection and his body of work founded the school of thought called
Voluntarism. |
| 349 |
29.
Suicide
behavior is rare in childhood but escalates in adolescence. |
| 350 |
The
suicide
rate increases in a linear fashion from adolescence through late
adulthood. |
| 351 |
30.
The simultaneous holding of strong positive and negative emotional
attitudes toward the same situation or person is called ambivalence. |
| 352 |
31.
The study of the functions and activities of living cells, tissues, and
organs and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved is referred
to as physiology. |
| 353 |
32.
In everyday language depression refers to any downturn in mood, which
may be relatively transitory and perhaps due to something trivial. |
| 354 |
This
is differentiated from Clinical depression which is marked by symptoms
that last two weeks or more and are so severe that they interfere with
daily living. |
| 355 |
33.
Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are
altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits
that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and
reproduce. |
| 356 |
34.
An
illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception. |
| 357 |
35.
Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility
and practicality as vital components of truth. |
| 358 |
Pragmatism
objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent
reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and
rationalist schools of philosophy. |
| 359 |
36.
Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event,
including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an
unbroken chain of prior occurrences. |
| 360 |
37.
Psychologists gather data in order to describe, understand, predict,
and control behavior. |
| 361 |
Scientific
method refers to an approach that can be used to discover accurate
information. |
| 362 |
It
includes
these steps: |
| 363 |
understand
the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research
conclusions. |
| 364 |
38.
Research
that is objective, systematic, and testable is called scientific
research. |
| 365 |
39.
Tics are a repeated, impulsive action, almost reflexive in nature,
which the person feels powerless to control or avoid. |
| 366 |
40.
The
idea
that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions is
free will. |
| 367 |
41.
Radical
empiricism is the belief that all human knowledge is purely empirical. |
| 368 |
William
James was a proponent of one form of radical empiricism. |
| 369 |
42.
Santayana was a Spanish philosopher, essayist, poet and novelist, best
known for the oft-quoted statement, "Those who cannot remember the past
are condemned to repeat it." 43. A quantitative property is one that
exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. |
| 370 |
Measurements
of any particular quantitative property are expressed as as a specific
quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. |
| 371 |
44.
Insight refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among various
elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another. |
| 372 |
45.
Wundt felt that volition -- acts of will, "decision and choice" -- were
so significant to understanding psychology, that he called his theory
of psychology Voluntarism. |
| 373 |
46.
The
sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the "fight or
flight response". |
| 374 |
It
is
an
automatic regulation system, that is, one that operates without the
intervention of conscious thought. |
| 375 |
47.
Fechner founded psychophysics or the scientific investigation of the
functional relations of dependency between body and mind. |
| 376 |
48.
James' concept that the mind is a continuous flow of sensations,
images, thoughts, and feelings is stream of consciousness. |
| 377 |
Accordingly,
consiousness cannot be reduced into elements. |
| 378 |
49.
Structuralism argues that the mind can be studied just as one would
study chemistry or other physical sciences by reducing complex entities
into their basic parts and laws. |
| 379 |
The
method
of introspection was used to discover the basic elements of thought. |
| 380 |
50.
A
metaphor is a rhetorical trope where a comparison is made between two
seemingly unrelated subjects 51. A habit is a response that has become
completely separated from its eliciting stimulus. |
| 381 |
Early
learning theorists used the term to describe S-R associations, however
not all S-R associations become a habit, rather many are extinguished
after reinforcement is withdrawn. |
| 382 |
52.
The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and
homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid
balance and body temperature. |
| 383 |
Functions
of
the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor
learning and other sorts of learning. |
| 384 |
The
brain is
primarily made up of two types of cells: |
| 385 |
glia
and
neurons. |
| 386 |
53.
Nurture refers to the environmental influences on behavior due to
nutrition, culture, socioeconomic status, and learning. |
| 387 |
54.
The
body's electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of
neurons is a nervous system. |
| 388 |
55.
An
emotion is a mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than
through conscious effort. |
| 389 |
They
are
often accompanied by physiological changes. |
| 390 |
56.
A collective identity that includes interpersonal relationships plus
aspects of identity derived from membership in larger, less personal
groups based on race, ethnicity, and culture is called the social self. |
| 391 |
57.
In
Freud's view the Ego serves to balance our primitive needs and our
moral beliefs and taboos. |
| 392 |
Relying
on
experience, a healthy Ego provides the ability to adapt to reality and
interact with the outside world. |
| 393 |
58.
Self-esteem refers to a person's subjective appraisal of himself or
herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree. |
| 394 |
59.
A
specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable
through research is a hypothesis. |
| 395 |
60.
Zeitgeist, originally a German expression, means "the spirit of the
time". |
| 396 |
It
denotes
the intellectual and cultural climate of an era. |
| 397 |
61.
Lange
along with William James, independently developed the James-Lange
theory of emotion. |
| 398 |
Unlike
James, Lange specifically stated that vasomotor changes are emotions. |
| 399 |
Lange
also noted the psychotropic effects of lithium, although his work in
this area was forgotten and independently rediscovered much later. |
| 400 |
62.
Causation concerns the time order relationship between two or more
objects such that if a specific antecendent condition occurs the same
consequent must always follow. |
| 401 |
63.
Ideo-motor theory of behavior according to William James, suggests that
ideas cause behavior and thus we can control our behavior by
controlling our ideas. |
| 402 |
64.
Theories are logically self-consistent models or frameworks describing
the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon. |
| 403 |
They
are
broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. |
| 404 |
65.
The rationalist movement is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that
the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather
than faith, dogma or religious teaching. |
| 405 |
66.
Vaihinger argued that human beings can never really know the underlying
reality of the world, and that as a result we construct systems of
thought and then assume that these match reality. |
| 406 |
67.
John Stuart Mill formulated five methods of induction -- the method of
agreement, the method of difference, the joint or double method of
agreement and difference, the method of residues, and that of
concomitant variations. |
| 407 |
The
common feature of these methods, the one real method of scientific
inquiry, is that of elimination 68. Personality refers to the pattern
of enduring characteristics that differentiates a person, the patterns
of behaviors that make each individual unique. |
| 408 |
69.
Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth
should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith,
dogma or religious teaching. |
| 409 |
Rationalism
has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism,
in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical
discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs. |
| 410 |
70.
Parapsychology is the study of the evidence involving phenomena where a
person seems to affect or to gain information about something through a
means not currently explainable within the framework of mainstream,
conventional science. |
| 411 |
71.
The social sciences use the term society to mean a group of people that
form a semi-closed (or semi-open) social system, in which most
interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group. |
| 412 |
72.
The intellectual processes through which information is obtained,
transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used is cognition. |
| 413 |
73.
Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial psychology, and held
controversial views on the reliability of witness testimony. |
| 414 |
74.
In Bandura's theory of vicarious learning, any activity by an observer
that aids in the observation of relevant aspects of a model's behavior
and its consequences is referred to as attentional processes. |
| 415 |
75.
Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
experience. |
| 416 |
Thus,
to
attribute a behavioral change to learning, the change must be
relatively permanent and must result from experience. |
| 417 |
76.
The American Psychological Association is a professional organization
representing psychology in the US. The mission statement is to "advance
psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting
health, education , and human welfare". |
| 418 |
77.
An enduring mental representation of a person, place, or thing that
evokes an emotional response and related behavior is called attitude. |
| 419 |
78.
Clinical psychology is involved in the diagnosis, assessment, and
treatment of patients with mental or behavioral disorders, and conducts
research in these various areas. |
| 420 |
79.
The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological
principles and theories to overcome practical problems. |
| 421 |
80.
An
action, thought, or feeling that is harmful to the person or to others
is called abnormal behavior. |
| 422 |
81.
Psychological research and theory that deals with the effects of
cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors on legal proceedings and
the law is a forensic psychology. |
| 423 |
82.
A
subjective feeling or emotional tone often accompanied by bodily
expressions noticeable to others is called affect. |
| 424 |
83.
Industrial psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the
workplace. |
| 425 |
Industrial
psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid
workers and organizations. |
| 426 |
84.
Population refers to all members of a well-defined group of organisms,
events, or things. |
| 427 |
85.
Cerebral
hemorrhage is a form of stroke that occurs when a blood vessel in the
brain ruptures or bleeds. |
| 428 |
Hemorrhagic
strokes are deadlier than their more common counterpart, ischemic
strokes. |
| 429 |
86.
Calkins invented the concept of paired-associate technique, a method
where information is learned in pairs and the recall is studied to
determine how troublesome associations can be eliminated and replaced
with beneficial associations. |
| 430 |
87.
Short-term memory is that part of memory which stores a limited amount
of information for a limited amount of time (roughly 30-45 seconds). |
| 431 |
The
second
key concept associated with a short-term memory is that it has a finite
capacity. |
| 432 |
88.
Kohut's self-psychology is a variant of psychoanalysis, in which the
focus is on the development of the person's self-worth. |
| 433 |
It
is a
function of the acceptance and nurturance by key figures in childhood. |
| 434 |
89.
The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of
observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and
responses is called behaviorism. |
| 435 |
Behaviorism
relied heavily on animal research and stated the same principles
governed the behavior of both nonhumans and humans. |
| 436 |
90.
Allport
was a trait theorist. |
| 437 |
Those
traits
he believed to predominate a person's personality were called central
traits. |
| 438 |
Traits
such
that one could be indentifed by the trait, were referred to as cardinal
traits. |
| 439 |
Central
traits and cardinal traits are influenced by environmental factors. |
| 440 |
91.
His
laboratory at Johns Hopkins is considered to be the first American
laboratory of psychology. |
| 441 |
In
1887
Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology. |
| 442 |
His
interests centered around child development and evolutionary theory 92.
Physiological psychology refers to the study of the physiological
mechanisms, in the brain and elsewhere, that mediate behavior and
psychological experiences. |
| 443 |
93.
Helmholtz a pioneer of the new science of psychology, was a rigorous
experimental physiologist and philospher. |
| 444 |
He
gave
us
the distinction betwen sensation and peception and is well known for
his theories of color perception and hearing. |
| 445 |
94.
The
concept of reinforcing successive, increasingly accurate approximations
to a target behavior is called shaping. |
| 446 |
The
target
behavior is broken down into a hierarchy of elemental steps, each step
more sophisticated then the last. |
| 447 |
By
successively reinforcing each of the the elemental steps, a form of
differential reinforcement, until that step is learned while
extinguishing the step below, the target behavior is gradually achieved. |
| 448 |
95.
His discovery of the phi phenomenon concerning the illusion of motion
gave rise to the influential school of Gestalt psychology. |
| 449 |
In
the
latter part of his life, Wertheimer directed much of his attention to
the problem of learning. |
| 450 |
96.
Stages represent relatively discrete periods of time in which
functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other
periods. |
| 451 |
97.
The
period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult
responsibilities is adolescence. |
| 452 |
98.
The essentials of friendship are reciprocity and commitment between
individuals who see themselves more or less as equals. |
| 453 |
Interaction
between friends rests on a more equal power base than the interaction
between children and adults. |
| 454 |
99.
In testing, standards of test performance that permit the comparison of
one person's score on the test to the scores of others who have taken
the same test are referred to as norms. |
| 455 |
100.
Species
refers to a reproductively isolated breeding population. |
| 456 |
101.
A period of time when an innate response can be elicited by a
particular stimulus is referred to as the critical period. |
| 457 |
102.
A
premise is a statement presumed true within the context of a discourse,
especially of a logical argument. |
| 458 |
103.
Instinct is the word used to describe inherent dispositions towards
particular actions. |
| 459 |
They
are
generally an inherited pattern of responses or reactions to certain
kinds of situations. |
| 460 |
104.
Educational psychology is the study of how children and adults learn,
the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and
how schools function as organizations. |
| 461 |
105.
Scientific study of the processes of change from conception through
adolescence is called child development. |
| 462 |
106.
The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change
occurring throughout life is referred to as developmental psychology. |
| 463 |
107.
Anxiety is a complex combination of the feeling of fear, apprehension
and worry often accompanied by physical sensations such as
palpitations, chest pain and/or shortness of breath. |
| 464 |
108.
Kenneth
Clark with his wife Mamie founded the Northside Center for Child
Development in Harlem. |
| 465 |
They
were
known for their 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's
attitudes about race. |
| 466 |
109.
In Learning theory, discrimination refers the ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli. |
| 467 |
It
can
be
brought about by extensive training or differential reinforcement. |
| 468 |
In
social
terms, it is the denial of privileges to a person or a group on the
basis of prejudice. |
| 469 |
110.
Prejudice in general, implies coming to a judgment on the subject
before learning where the preponderance of the evidence actually lies,
or formation of a judgement without direct experience. |
| 470 |
111.
Jung was
in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. |
| 471 |
He
proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted
personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious. |
| 472 |
His
work has
been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion,
literature, and related fields. |
| 473 |
112.
Hegel published the Phenomenology of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind),
his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to
absolute knowledge, published in 1807. 113. Kant held that all known
objects are phenomena of consciousness and not realities of the mind. |
| 474 |
But,
the known object is not a mere bundle of sensations for it includes
unsensational characteristics or manifestation of a priori principles. |
| 475 |
He
insisted that the scientist and the philosopher approached nature with
certain implicit principles, and Kant saw his task to be that of
finding and making explicit these principles. |
| 476 |
114.
Pedagogy is the art or science of teaching. |
| 477 |
The
word
comes from the ancient Greek paidagogos, the slave who took children to
and from school. |
| 478 |
115.
A
simple, involuntary response to a stimulus is referred to as reflex. |
| 479 |
Reflex
actions originate at the spinal cord rather than the brain. |
| 480 |
116.
Carr introduced the notion of an adaptive act, "conduct that reflects
mental activity." An adaptive act consists of a motive, a setting, and
a response that satisfies the motive. |
| 481 |
The
result
is learning: |
| 482 |
the
response
is repeated the next time the need arises in that setting. |
| 483 |
117.
Rote learning, is a learning technique which avoids grasping the inner
complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and
instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled
by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. |
| 484 |
118.
A
change in an environmental condition that elicits a response is a
stimulus. |
| 485 |
119.
In
the
eye, the pupil is the opening in the middle of the iris. |
| 486 |
It
appears
black because most of the light entering it is absorbed by the tissues
inside the eye. |
| 487 |
The
size of the pupil is controlled by involuntary contraction and dilation
of the iris, in order to regulate the intensity of light entering the
eye. |
| 488 |
This
is
known as the pupillary reflex. |
| 489 |
120.
Individualism refers to putting personal goals ahead of group goals and
defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than
group memberships. |
| 490 |
121.
James Rowland Angell is a functional psycholgist interested not only in
the operations of mental process considered merely of and by and for
itself, but also and more vigorously in mental activity as part of a
larger stream of biological forces which are constantly at work. |
| 491 |
122.
Harvey
Carr is often cited as the figure who "preserved functional psychology"
during the era of behavioral research. |
| 492 |
He
is
well
known for writng Psychology: |
| 493 |
A
Study
of
Mental Activity (1925). |
| 494 |
123.
Acquisition is the process of adapting to the environment, learning or
becoming conditioned. |
| 495 |
In
classical conditoning terms, it is the initial learning of the stimulus
response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with
a unconditioned stimulus and becoming a conditioned stimulus. |
| 496 |
124.
Fixation in abnormal psychology is the state where an individual
becomes obsessed with an attachment to another human, animal or
inanimate object. |
| 497 |
Fixation
in
vision refers to maintaining the gaze in a constant direction. |
| 499 |
125.
Reasoning is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from
certain premises. |
| 500 |
There
are two
main methods to reach a conclusion,deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning. |
| 501 |
126.
Basic research has as its primary objective the advancement of
knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among
variables . |
| 502 |
It
is
exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest or
hunch. |
| 503 |
127.
The
amount of time required to respond to a stimulus is referred to as
reaction time. |
| 504 |
128.
Psychophysics refers to the study of the mathematical relationship
between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological
experience of them. |
| 505 |
129.
Thorndike worked in animal behavior and the learning process leading to
the theory of connectionism. |
| 506 |
Among
his most famous contributions were his research on cats escaping from
puzzle boxes, and his formulation of the Law of Effect. |
| 507 |
130.
Sherrington used reflexes in the spinal cord as a way of investigating
the general properties of neurons and the nervous system. |
| 508 |
These
experiments led him to postulate "Sherrington's Law," which states that
for every neural activation of a muscle, there is a corresponding
inhibition of the opposing muscle. |
| 509 |
He
also
introduced the concept of the synapse and the concept of the reflex arc. |
| 510 |
131.
Woodworth's theory of stimulus-organism-response considers that there
are a number of potential responses to stimuli where the expressed
response may be determined by the interaction between a personality,
experience, etc. |